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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



Instruction in the Grades 

Values and Methods 

A TEXTBOOK FOR NORMAL STUDENTS AND YOUNG TEACHERS 



OSCAR GERSON 

FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF PEEAGOGY IN TEMPLE UNIVERSITY 
CO-AUTHOR OF 

A BRIEF TOPICAL SURVEY OP UNITED STATES HISTORY 
GEOGRAPHY PRIMER, PHYSIOLOGY PRIMER, ETC. 



HINDS, NOBLE & ELDREDGE, Publishers 
31-33-35 West 15th Street New York City 



v**V 



Copyright, 1914, by 
fflNDS, NOBLE & ELDREDGE 



JUN 22 1914 

©CI.A376388 



TO 

KATE, JOHN, BOB AND PRUE 

WHOSE PATIENT FORBEARANCE MADE THIS WORK POSSIBLE 



PREFACE 

This little book is the outgrowth of a series of lec- 
tures delivered to groups of teachers — candidates for 
Supervising Principals' certificates at the annual, ex- 
aminations in Philadelphia — and is published in re- 
sponse to their urgent request. 

Throughout the book the reader will find that value 
as determining aim is regarded as inseparable from a 
philosophic treatment of method. The constant ne- 
cessity of considering values and aims, which I have 
never tired of proclaiming, has made this work rather 
different from the ordinary treatise on method. It is, 
however, the recognition of this point of view which 
has lifted, or will lift, teaching from a trade to a pro- 
fession. Every live teacher must, if only occasion- 
ally, catch a glimpse of the blue sky of educational 
ideate through the narrow, barred windows of tradi- 
tion. Although I have carried out the relationship of 
aim and method in considerable detail, and have ap- 
plied it to most of the curricular subjects, I cannot but 
feel that such repetition is justified by the vital im- 
portance of this view-point. 

I have omitted the treatment of the important sub- 
jects of physical and manual training, music, drawing, 
sewing, and cooking, which as a rule are either taught 
or supervised by specialists ; and have confined myself 



PREFACE VI 

to the discussion of those subjects, largely traditional, 
in which the teacher is expected to work out her own 
salvation. All the methods advocated in this book 
find their justification in the fact that they have been 
successfully used, either by me or by teachers whose 
work and results have come under my direct observa- 
tion. 

I shall not attempt to acknowledge my indebted- 
ness to other writers on education. In fact, I could 
not, if I would. The ideas herein expressed are, 
now at least, so absolutely my own, that even though 
I may be only their foster father, I cannot distinguish 
them from my own offspring. This much I can safely 
say, that no view set forth in this book is written 
simply because it conforms to somebody's theory. 
Neither has newness, as such, been a part of my aim. 
I have merely attempted to collect, in an orderly 
fashion, such parts of my educational experience and 
reflection as I thought would be helpful to teachers and 
normal school students. I trust that, if the reviewer 
is moved to exclaim with Lessing, "This book con- 
tains much that is good and much that is new, ' ' he will 
not supplement it with the caustic comment that the 
good is not new and the new is not good. 

0. G. 

May, 1914. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction ix 

PART I INTRODUCTORY 

CHAPTER 

I Values . 1 

II Psychology 9 

III Method 22 

PART II METHODOLOGY 

IV Reading 37 

V Oral Expression 58 

VI Spelling 83 

VII Written Language . 102 

VIII Grammar 129 

IX Arithmetic 160 

X Geography 191 

XI History 224 

XII Physiology 256 



INTRODUCTION 

No apology is needed for a new book on Method. 
That there is real progress in this subject is shown 
by the fact that some books quickly become "out of 
date" and "behind the times." 

Tradition still holds partial sway, however, and 
exerts a two-fold influence : first, in determining Sub- 
ject Matter; second, in regard to Method per se. It 
thus contributes its share to four results, namely: 

Worthless matter ill-taught, 
Worthless matter well-taught, 
Valuable matter poorly taught, 
Valuable matter well-taught, 

the last only being the consummation devoutly de- 
sired by all faithful teachers. 

The aim of a book of this character should be to 
furnish a criterion for educational values, and inspira- 
tion for right methods. In regard to the former, the 
author well realizes the fact that the educational sum- 
mum bonum depends upon our attitude toward that 
larger science of life — ethics. 

In this book the attempt will be made to ascertain 
the most generally accepted views on the various sub- 
jects, although here and there the reader will dis- 
cover certain radical departures from existing tradi- 
tions, as embodied in present-day courses of study. 



X INTRODUCTION 

So great is the variety of opinion, however, in regard 
to educational values that the author, in lecturing to 
classes of teachers, has often found the most difficult 
part of his work to consist in determining the what, 
the subject matter, as well as the how or method on 
account of the vagueness or neglect of the aim. 

An illustration may make this clearer. In teach- 
ing mode and tense in grammar, methods would 
vary considerably, according as we adopted as our 
aim (a) improvement of spoken and written lan- 
guage, (b) preparation for the study of foreign lan- 
guages, (c) training of memory. Under (a) emphasis 
would be laid upon matters like the proper use of the 
future tense; upon the auxiliaries will, shall, may, 
can; the subjunctive forms; etc. Under (b) drill in 
conjugation and the development of a helpful pre- 
paratory terminology would be emphasized. Under 
(c) some special way of using the subject-matter to 
train the memory might be devised. 

It is hoped that the importance of definite aim will 
find a permanent, prominent place in the teacher's 
actual practice. The most useful habit of mind for 
a teacher is that of constant self-questioning, as: 
"What is the use of this?" "Will it make a better 
man or woman of this child?" "Will it enable him 
to pass an examination?" "Will it make him health- 
ier?" etc., etc. 

Although this is an age of specialization, still teach- 
ing is teaching, and very much the same psycho- 
logical principles apply to all subjects of instruction. 
What these are will be pointed out in a general way 



INTRODUCTION XI 

in a subsequent chapter. It frequently happens, how- 
ever, that a teacher may secure excellent results in 
one subject, and indifferent or poor results in some 
other. The tendency to introduce departmental teach- 
ing in the elementary schools is to some extent a recog- 
nition of this diversity of talent and interest among 
teachers. Where, however, as in most elementary 
schools, the teacher must give instruction in all sub- 
jects, it becomes exceedingly important that she should 
have a thorough knowledge of subject-matter, and 
also that she have guidance in method in those sub- 
jects where she seems lacking in ability and interest. 
It is hoped that this book may to some extent enliven 
topics, formerly viewed as dull, and suggest real 
method in place of lifeless routine. 

No teacher should limit her knowledge of subject- 
matter or method to the work of the grade which she 
happens to be teaching. This more than anything 
else takes the life out of work. Ruts do save some 
from the ditches, but the educational roads are broad 
and fair, and both ruts and ditches may be avoided. 
In the industrial world, it is possible for a man to 
be a proficient workman, with no knowledge what- 
ever of the relation of his work to other opera- 
tions in the same establishment. Such piece-workers 
cannot possibly live in their work. Their real life 
must be crowded into the comparatively short period 
outside of their working hours. 1 Teaching must 

1 The organization, compactness, and specialization of in- 
dustrial systems have a dangerous as well as a helpful aspect 
when made a standard of comparison with educational insti- 



Xll INTRODUCTION 

never approximate this condition. Of all vocations 
in the world, teaching is the one where the work- 
man must live in his work. Anything else spells 
failure. Every teacher should have a general view of 
the relation of education to life. More specifically she 
should come into intimate contact with the work of 
every grade. From this point of view, especially, it 
is hoped that all parts of this book will be found help- 
ful to teachers whatever their grade. 

Let it be said at once that no set of rules or de- 
vices can possibly relieve the teacher of the necessity 
for watchful eyes, keen ears, quick brain, and respon- 
sive heart. The contempt for pedagogical training 
manifested by some of the older teachers — those born 
teachers, who, being fittest, have survived — is due to 
their keen perception of the unearnest self-sufficiency 
of the book-made pedagogue. They might be justified 
in quoting to the latter: "And the God you took 
from a printed book be with you, Tomlinson." As 
in discipline, so in instruction, a good method at one 
time may be bad at another time ; or the best way to 
teach John may not be equally good for Henry, nor 
for the same John at different times. A rule is general 
in nature. This means that it is applicable in the 
great majority of cases. But the recognition of the 
comparatively few cases where a rule is not applicable, 
and the proper modifications of the rule, which will 
adapt it to special situations, measure the tact and 
ability of the teacher. 

tutions. What constitutes true economy in these latter is 
very hard to define. 



INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

VALUES AND METHODS 

PART I— INTRODUCTORY 

CHAPTER I 

VALUES 

Explanatory. — Were this book intended as a philo- 
sophical discussion of pedagogy, it would be necessary 
in this place to devote considerable space to the so- 
called ethical aim of education. The author's pur- 
pose, however, is by no means theoretic or academic, 
but narrowly practical, as proof of which, philosophical 
digressions will be eschewed throughout. In general, 
we may agree with the statement that the aim of edu- 
cation is social efficiency. No thorough-going analy- 
sis of the concept of social efficiency will be attempted 
here, but just so much description of the ideal as 
seems necessary to the understanding of method. 

Mental Discipline. — It has been the custom of edu- 
cators, from time immemorial, to speak of the value 
of this or that study as "mental discipline." It has 
been thought that various powers or faculties could be 
trained or strengthened as the result of some specific 
exercise, so as to function better in general. For ex- 

1 



2 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

ample, the "grit" developed in a football game was 
thought to give to the individual a courageous atti- 
tude toward the divers situations arising in the battle 
of life. The accuracy and insight required in trans- 
lating a passage of Latin were credited with a tremen- 
dous effect upon the development of accuracy and in- 
sight in general. In the above sentences the past 
tense has been used, as though nobody nowadays ac- 
cepted these views. This is not so. Formal disci- 
pline — as it is called — has rooted itself so firmly 
even in our every-day speech that no single genera- 
tion of psychologists can hope to eradicate it. More- 
over, in this popular notion, there is so much real 
truth that the scientific unraveling of the tangle be- 
comes especially difficult. Passing over the contro- 
versial aspects of the question, the following would 
seem to be a fair summing up of the situation at this 
time: — The disciplinary value of various subjects in 
the curriculum has been greatly exaggerated. As a 
rule, so-called mental training amounts to no more 
than the development of the natural interest attend- 
ant on systematized knowledge. The botanist has not, 
on the whole, better powers of observation than the 
dressmaker. The one observes well in a field or gar- 
den, the other in the field of fashion or at an evening 
function. Where there is interest and mental organi- 
zation in any particular subject, there will be better 
observation, memory, imagination. No game requires 
more concentration and foresight than chess. Yet 
chess players are not, as a rule, a peculiarly provident 
class. We must not think of the mind as a collection 



VALUES 6 

of faculties, each capable of individual training, but 
rather as a group of apperceptive systems; mental 
training depending on the interrelation and organi- 
zation of these systems. 

The study of one subject may, of course, assist in 
the mastery of another, depending upon the resem- 
blance between them. To one who has mastered Latin, 
the study of the Romance languages is comparatively 
easy. So a chauffeur should have but little trouble in 
learning to run a motor boat. But in neither case 
does this amount to mental training as generally 
understood. Additions are simply made to a system 
of ideas already existing. Nor does a method or de- 
vice for text-book study constitute mental training. 
Such method or device may be exceedingly helpful, 
however, because much of the ordinary curricular 
school work is dependent on text-book study. When 
we come to the ethical or quasi-ethical qualities, such 
as courage, perseverance, neatness, accuracy, the prob- 
lem of formal discipline assumes a new aspect. No 
amount of psychological experimentation will disabuse 
the ordinary teacher 's mind of her belief in the ethical 
value of school work. Ethical value there certainly 
is, but it may not be left to itself ; it must be fostered. 
There is a value, and a considerable value, in one's 
sticking to a perverse mathematical problem until it 
is solved. But this value inheres, not in the mere 
sticking to the problem, but in the formation of an 
ideal of perseverance. Here is the teacher's oppor- 
tunity — a lively moral text. If a child is obliged to 
solve again a long problem on account of a careless 



4 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

error, disgust with school work is as likely a result 
as increased accuracy. All depends on how the teacher 
handles the situation. Our answer, then, to the ques- 
tion: ''What disciplinary value has subject X ?" 
would depend upon its resemblance to other subjects 
which would probably be studied later, or — and this 
is the more important consideration — upon the extent 
to which it furnished opportunities for the develop- 
ment of conscious ideals. 

Utility. — The utilitarian aim of education seems 
too obvious to require any extended treatment. It 
amounts to the indirect self-preservation of Spencer's 
Complete Living. It has been called the "bread and 
butter aim," and various other uncomplimentary 
names. Nevertheless, in an increasingly economic age 
such as ours, utility, even in a narrow sense, must 
justify our every movement. The rapid development 
of industrial and vocational education in recent times 
shows how important utility is to the general public, 
and how frequently values are reckoned in dollars and 
cents. There was a modern philosophy in the face- 
tioos response to the highwayman's "Money or your 
life!" "Take my life! I need my money to live 
with!" 

Conventional Aim. — There are many things which we 
learn, not because they are narrowly utilitarian, nor 
for any supposed mental value, but simply because 
everybody else learns them. What our parents have 
learned, we should learn, and thus tradition continues 
to grip our curricula. The educational body is choked 
with vestigial organs. The surgical excision must 



VALUES 5 

needs be delicate and often painful, but some excision 
is necessary. This conventional value of studies as- 
sumes greater proportions in the secondary than in the 
elementary school. Although we cannot disregard it 
altogether, there is no doubt that the conventional aim 
is responsible for a tremendous economic waste in edu- 
cation. 

Health. — Modern school education is recognizing 
more and more the importance of physical well-being. 
Not only is health regarded as an end in itself, but 
also as an indispensable condition of happiness and 
efficiency. The architecture and equipment of modern 
school buildings show the increasing recognition of 
health in the everbroadening scope of education. 
Specific instruction in gymnastics and supervised play 
indicate this recognition most concretely. Medical in- 
spection and school nurses must now be included in 
every up-to-date school system. Physiology, hygiene, 
and cooking, directly, and various other curricular 
subjects indirectly help to build up proper physical 
habits and ideals. 

Happiness. — "Without attempting the difficult task of 
defining happiness, we may take it for granted that 
it is a most important worldly aim. The genial heart- 
glow of benevolence, the pleasure of listening to good 
music, of reading good books, the gratification of a 
clear conscience, are all highly desirable forms of the 
mental life. This has been called the sentimental or 
emotional value of education, but the term does not 
seem exactly appropriate. Utilitarianism in educa- 
tion is sometimes used to include happiness as well 



6 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

as the "bread-and-butter aim" above described. The 
present vocational tendency does not emphasize hap- 
piness sufficiently, nor does it seem to discern the 
true relation between contentment and worldly pos- 
sessions. For the great mass of mankind the voca- 
tion tends to become drudgery. How to employ one 's 
leisure is a problem of the highest importance. 
"What shall I do?" is perhaps the most vital question 
which the laborer puts to himself at the close of a 
day's work. Much depends on the answer to such 
questions as "What books shall I read?" "What 
music shall I hear?" "To what theater shall I go?" 
It is the employment of his leisure which may make or 
mar the man. Education must therefore strive to 
furnish a rational measuring stick for pleasures. In 
literature, art, and the drama the creation of rational 
standards must be attempted, so that some apprecia- 
tion of the noble and beautiful may be achieved. The 
educator must repudiate Spencer's shallow argument 
that since the fine arts occupy the leisure part of life, 
they should be allotted only the leisure part of edu- 
cation. For the ordinary unskilled workman, leisure 
is life ; work, mere existence. 

Morality. — According to Herbart, all subjects have 
a moral value, and properly interpreted this is un- 
doubtedly true. Were this an academic thesis, I 
should certainly have included the pursuit of happi- 
ness in the present paragraph. Instead, I am re- 
stricting the term morality to a more or less clearly 
defined set of virtues, all of which are often grouped 



VALUES 7 

together under the head of duty or conscience ; for in- 
stance, truthfulness, justice, generosity, purity, faith- 
fulness, patriotism. When, in the course of this book, 
I have occasion to speak of the moral value of a sub- 
ject, I shall have special reference to one or more of 
these specific virtues. As we shall see in the next 
chapter, all education worthy of the name must justify 
itself by its inculcation of morality in the deepest 
sense. 

Preparation. — There are some subjects or portions 
of subjects which are of little or no value in themselves, 
but which form a necessary preparation for the study 
of some other subject. I shall use the term propaedeu- 
tic to describe this value. Propaedeutic or prepara- 
tory work may sometimes occupy considerable time, 
and be relatively complete in itself, or it may be paren- 
thetical in character, holding together the really im- 
portant parts of a subject — the connective tissue of 
education, as it were. In a broad sense, all school 
education is propaedeutic, constituting a preparation 
for life. 

Relation of the Values. — Although treated sepa- 
rately for convenience, we must not overlook the great 
overlapping of these various aims or values. For 
example, usefulness generally has value for happiness. 
Many hold that true contentment can result only 
from morality. Again, it is pleasant to know those 
things which we are expected to know. Besides, there 
is the useful side — a reputation for knowing the things 
we are expected to know will gain us influential 



8 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

friends. There is thus formed a complicated network 
— all of which, however, may be included under social 
efficiency. 

Again, the value of any kind of knowledge or pro- 
ficiency is relative. Proficiency in baseball has chiefly 
happiness value for the college boy, but strictly utili- 
tarian value for the professional ball player. Knowl- 
edge of the function of a carburetor has merely con- 
ventional value to the poor bricklayer who can only 
afford to talk "automobile," but decidedly utilitarian 
value to the fortunate one who operates his own car. 
Conversely, whatever knowledge of laying bricks the 
latter possesses is entirely conventional, while that of 
the former is utilitarian. 



CHAPTER II 

PSYCHOLOGY 

Explanation. — It is customary to include a course in 
psychology in the curriculum of normal schools, and 
in spite of various adverse criticisms, the common- 
sense of education favors the study of this science. 
In this chapter no attempt will be made to give an 
exhaustive or even a comprehensive view of psy- 
chology. My purpose is rather to fix with some degree 
of definiteness the terminology which I shall employ 
in this book and to emphasize those portions of mental 
science which seem to me to have a direct bearing upon 
method. It may not be amiss to state what to most 
should be patent, that no amount of psychological 
knowledge can make a teacher. The thoughtful 
teacher, however, will find that a grasp of fundamen- 
tal psychological conceptions will aid her consider- 
ably. It will serve as a searchlight to illuminate her 
experiences, revealing frequently the cause of suc- 
cess and the reasons for failure. So far as the teacher 
is concerned, psychology is to education as physiology 
is to hygiene. It is not necessary for the ordinary 
health-seeking mortal to know the exact microscopic 
constitution of the retina in order to preserve his 
eye-sight; nor is it necessary for the teacher to wade 

9 



10 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

through an exhaustive analysis of attention to know 
that pupils must be attentive in order to learn. 

Kinds of Knowledge. — We may, for convenience, di- 
vide knowledge into three classes, viz., subjective, ob- 
jective, and ejective. 1 Subjective knowledge is knowl- 
edge of one's own mental states. The exhilaration of 
an ocean breeze, a slight headache and eye strain, 
represent elements of subjective experience as I write 
these words. I use the term objective knowledge to 
designate all knowledge gained through the senses. 
The external world is objective to me. In a philosoph- 
ical sense, of course, all objective knowledge is also 
subjective to the individual observer. A gull wing- 
ing its flight above me, the swish of the waves, the 
paper on which I am writing, are all elements of my 
objective knowledge. By ejective knowledge, I mean 
all knowledge that is absolutely ''thrown out of" my 
own consciousness. I infer the feelings and ideas of 
other living creatures by their actions and words. I 
have no direct knowledge of their mental states. We 
gain subjective knowledge by introspection, objective 
knowledge by observation, and ejective knowledge by 
inference. These three methods — introspection, ob- 
servation, and inference are all essential to a knowledge 
of mind. 

Importance of Ejective Knowledge. — The older 
psychologists depended almost entirely upon intro- 
spection. This made their psychological work narrow 
and unscientific. In modern times, scientific methods, 

i This useful term, I believe, was first used in this sense by 
Clifford. 



PSYCHOLOGY 11 

particularly experimentation and statistics, have prac- 
tically revolutionized the study of this subject. Even 
to-day, however, psychologists find it extremely diffi- 
cult to make due allowance for individual differences. 
It is hard to get another person's viewpoint, to esti- 
mate his feelings and ideas. We constantly project 
ourselves into the minds of others. The difficulties 
attending ejective knowledge are increased many fold 
where there are great differences of age, of race, or 
of sex ; and when we attempt to comprehend the minds 
of lower animals, we may well stand aghast 

These difficulties may be illustrated by the odd work- 
ings of sympathy, which, as its etymology implies, in- 
volves the attempt to gain ejective knowledge. The 
young father of an infant is frequently much dis- 
tressed by the crying of his offspring. Much of the 
parent 's perturbation is due to his inability to prevent 
the projection of his own consciousness into the mind 
of the child. Inevitably he reasons that the pain or 
agony causing the infantile outburst is as intense as 
would be required to cause a similar outburst in him. 
This peculiar working of sympathy often goes so far 
as to cause feeling for the lifeless corpses about to be 
laid in the cold earth. If the emotional life of fish 
has merited all the feminine sympathy spent upon 
them, horrible, indeed, must be their sufferings. 

However, in spite of the difficulties and uncertain- 
ties of ejective knowledge — due largely to the inevi- 
table projection of self — all human beings are con- 
stantly endeavoring to employ it. Teachers especially 
are required to gauge the mentality of their pupils. 



12 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

There is not a lesson which does not necessitate an 
appraisal of the mental response of the class, and it 
is largely this ejective uncertainty which makes self- 
aetivity so important in pedagogy. 

Sensation, Perception, and Apperception. — A scien- 
tific classification of the sensations would be out of 
place here, nor is it particularly important for the 
teacher. Sensation is to psychology what the atom is 
to chemistry — a hypothetical entity of merely theo- 
retical significance. A sensation, to be of value, must 
be apperceived; that is, it must be made a part of 
some more or less elaborate group of ideas. This ap- 
perception may range from our hazy ideas of time 
and place when first awakened from sleep, to the clear 
understanding of a mathematical problem upon which 
we have concentrated our attention. An elaborate 
group of ideas is often called an apperceptive system. 
Intelligence is proportioned to the number, perfection, 
and interrelationships of apperceptive systems. A 
well ordered mind approximates a well organized 
army with its battalions, companies, etc., in proper sub- 
ordination, while over all stands the commander-in- 
chief. Perception is but another name for that kind 
of apperception through which we gain objective 
knowledge. The muscular sense, and the senses of 
sight, touch, and hearing, are the principal channels 
of perception. 

Attention. — Attention is dependent upon an impor- 
tant fact of mental life; that all parts of conscious- 
ness are not equally clear or intense at the same time. 
For education, attention is the most important concept 



PSYCHOLOGY 13 

of psychology, as all knowledge depends upon clear- 
ness of mental view. The slightest introspection will 
readily reveal the characteristics of attentive con- 
sciousness. The state of mind receiving attention be- 
comes clear, distinct, vivid, and, what is of greatest 
importance, significant; that is, it calls up and fuses 
with various related ideas. The significance or 
' ' meaningf ulness, " resulting from attention is but a 
form of apperception. In fact, attention and apper- 
ception are two aspects of the same mental condition. 
When we say attention, we refer particularly to the 
process, whereas apperception refers rather to the 
product, the whole mental state. The fuller the idea 
group, the keener the comprehension and the easier the 
retention. If we compare the mind to a hotel, we may 
say that the mental states receiving attention are the 
permanent boarders, and the others are mere transient 
guests. 

In the light of what has just been said about ap- 
perceptive systems, a new significance is given to the 
query: "To how many things can we attend at 
once?" It comes down to a consideration of what 
we mean by one thing. The child who has learned 
the surface and drainage of a continent as two inter- 
related facts naturally groups them. In fact, in at- 
tending to them, he is in reality attending to but one 
thing. E pluribus unum is the real maxim of intel- 
lectual education. What we call intellectual power 
shows itself particularly here. To Newton, the move- 
ment of the heavenly bodies and the facts of terres- 
trial gravitation became one thing. So Napoleon and 



14 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

Mozart — each in his own field — grasped tremendous 
unities where the ordinary mind would be lost in a 
maze of unrelated detail. 

We may remark, in passing, that what teachers call 
inattention is generally different from the state of 
listlessness to which psychologists apply the term. In 
the class room the inattentive pupil is he who is very 
intent upon something else. Pedagogical inattention 
is thus rather an ethical than a psychological condi- 
tion. The pupil is inattentive to what he should at- 
tend to. 

A distinction is often made between attention with 
effort, and free or disinterested attention. The former 
is called voluntary and the latter non-voluntary atten- 
tion. Uncontrollable attention to some sudden sight, 
sound, etc., may be called involuntary attention. 

Representative Consciousness. — All mental develop- 
ment depends upon the power of retention. Every 
percept or mental state leaves a physiological modifica- 
tion which may or may not cause its recall. "We give 
the name idea to recalled mental states or percepts. 
The term image is also frequently used. If the idea 
or image closely resembles its original, and is thought 
of as belonging to some definite past time, we are said 
to remember. This is memory. When the ideas are 
not definitely localized in the past, or are combined 
in various new ways, we call the process imagination. 
The recall of ideas, whether in memory or imagination, 
depends upon certain conditions, which have been 
generalized by psychologists into the "Laws of Asso- 
ciation." The most important of these laws are those 



PSYCHOLOGY 1& 

of contiguity and similarity: An idea A tends to call 
up the idea B if it has occurred at the same time with 
it in past experience or if it resembles B. (Contrast 
would be a special case of similarity.) Moreover, the 
recall of the idea B would depend upon the frequency, 
recency, intensity, and degree of organization or apper- 
ception of its connection with A. The pleasant or un- 
pleasant consequences of ideas and acts are potent 
influences in determining associations positively or 
negatively. Of these secondary considerations, fre- 
quency and degree of organization are the most impor- 
tant. The influence of recency is potent, but for a 
short time only, as any one who has crammed for an 
examination can testify. Intensity as a force for re- 
call is more important. The efficiency of interest as 
a factor of instruction depends largely upon its in- 
tensification of ideas. 

In popular language, imagination is often confused 
with fancy. Psychologically considered, imagination 
is any form of mental combination, and thus bears a 
vital relation to all acquisition of knowledge. All 
learning from verbal description illustrates imagin- 
ative activity. It is here particularly that the teacher 
must constantly test the pupils. Pictures will be 
found a tremendous aid to imaginative activity, as they 
bring before the pupils simultaneously what verbal 
descriptions give only piecemeal and seriatim. Train- 
ing the imagination is not a matter of negative con- 
trol, but depends rather on a well stored and well 
organized mind. The habit or ideal of testing im- 
aginative results should be constantly fostered. Child- 



16 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

ish flights of fancy do not show, as is popularly sup- 
posed, that children have stronger imaginations than 
adults, but serve rather to indicate the absence of the 
inhibitive influence of organized knowledge. 

Creative Imagination and Originality. — By creative 
imagination is meant not the creation of something 
absolutely new, but rather a combination of old ma- 
terials — ideas or images — in a new way. When this 
combining or grouping is determined by criteria or 
standards possessed by the individual himself the work 
of imagination may be called original. From this 
point of view, sincerity or self-realization lies at the 
basis of all true art. The child who takes a conven- 
tionalized flower or leaf form, and develops it under 
the guidance of a controlling decorative idea of his 
own is to that extent an artist. Utility and truth, 
as well as beauty, guide imaginative activity. The 
inventor and mathematican employ imagination quite 
as much as the sculptor or romancer. Any real train- 
ing of imagination must therefore include the building 
up of good standards of the Greek trinity — the Good, 
the Beautiful, and the True. 

Kinds of Imagery. — Introspection supplemented by 
experimental and statistical research has revealed the 
fact that individuals differ greatly in mental attri- 
butes. These differences are probably due to heredity 
and chance variation. Perhaps nowhere are the 
varieties of mental life so strongly in evidence as in 
the prominence of certain types of imagery in different 
individuals. Of course, every kind of sensation pro- 
duces within each brain a modification which may 



PSYCHOLOGY 17 

lead to the recall of an image. These images are, how- 
ever, of very different degrees of intensity. Tastes, 
smells, and various organic sensations are seldom 
clearly recalled. Sights, sounds, and sensations of 
movement give as a rule much more vivid images. 
We use the terms ' ' visiles, " " audiles, ' ' and ' ' motiles ' ' 
to designate individuals whose imagery is predomi- 
nately visual, auditory, or motor. Much so-called vis- 
ual and auditory imagery is in reality motor. The 
delicate movements of the eyes in the one case, and of 
the articulatory organs in the other, play a prominent 
part in the production of these images. 

Ideas of Relationship. — These form an important 
class of ideas which are not precisely images of sensa- 
tion. As their designation indicates, they are ideas of 
relation between other ideas. These relationship ideas 
are of great importance, as the apprehension of rela- 
tionships is a distinguishing characteristic of intelli- 
gence. The mental states corresponding to such words 
as if, and, although, but, etc., illustrate this type of 
idea. Much of what the older psychologists called 
training of reason might be epitomized as furnishing 
the mind with a stock of relationship ideas, and giving 
the pupil practice in using them. It is from this point 
of view, rather than from that of formal discipline, 
that we are justified in attributing to grammar the 
power of logical training. 

General Ideas. — The images and ideas w ? hich we have 
hitherto considered have been of individual or par- 
ticular experiences. Most ideas, however, are not of 
this character. "When we say "horse," or "beauty," 



18 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

or "king," we are thinking, not of some individual 
horse or beautiful object or monarch, but rather of a 
class to which these individuals belong. Such class 
ideas are called by various names, such as generic 
images, notions, or concepts, the last term being the one 
most commonly used. Most concepts are formed by 
the aid of language. It is probable that the lower ani- 
mals being devoid of speech are also devoid of general 
ideas. Hearing the same name applied to a number 
of different individuals of a class, an association is 
formed between the name and the essential features, 
the resulting idea being what psychologists call a gen- 
eric image. The term concept is applied to the idea 
which is free from all imagery, the word simply calling 
up the essential features. These essential features 
form what logicians call the connotation of the term. 
When expressed in words they constitute the defini- 
tion. The word denotation is used to embrace all the 
objects of the class. Thus the connotation of "ocean" 
would include, largeness, salt water, etc.; the denota- 
tion would name the five oceans. When the connota- 
tion of a word is too large, its denotation becomes too 
small, and vice versa. In either case the concept is 
inaccurate. A child who includes redness in the con- 
notation of "rose" would fail to recognize a white 
rose, while the failure to include gill breathing in the 
connotation of fish would lead to calling the whale a 
fish. The formation of clear accurate concepts is a 
large part of the process of education. Rational lan- 
guage study hence assumes vital importance. 
Definition. — The purpose of definition is in general 



PSYCHOLOGY 19 

to fix a concept after it is formed. Provisional, tenta- 
tive definition may, however, often precede the full 
or accurate definition. Thus a synonymous expres- 
sion for a new word explaining it in its present context 
is often sufficient for the time being. The old educa- 
tion failed in that it demanded exact definition before 
the idea was formed with any idea of definiteness. A 
word should be used frequently in great variety of de- 
notation before a definition is required. It is only 
in this Avay that rational mental growth can be ob- 
tained. The concept is a flower whose perfection de- 
pends upon a fertile perceptive soil and constant 
nourishment. To teach the concept "preposition" to 
an elementary school pupil by means of a definition 
is about as sensible as sticking a cut rose in the ground 
and expecting it to thrive. In fact, we go through life 
with much of our vocabulary representing unanalyzed, 
undefined concepts. Real definition is usually un- 
necessary except in connection with the words that oc- 
cur in our special line of interest or profession. The 
grammar school pupil who can unerringly pick out 
every preposition in a printed page and explain its 
use has accomplished all that should be required, and 
probably has a better grasp of the subject than the 
pupil who can glibly recite the abstruse definition. 
Definition finds its more appropriate place in second- 
ary education, although even here its use is beset 
with grave dangers. 

Judgment and Reasoning. — When we affirm or deny 
something of something else, the process is called 
judgment. Expressed in words, a judgment becomes 



20 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

a proposition. Thus ''Iron is a metal" is a proposi- 
tion. Logicians call iron the subject, metal the predi- 
cate, and is the connective or copula. It will readily 
be seen that accurate judgment depends upon accurate 
conception and on the powers of analysis and compari- 
son. 

Inference or reasoning makes use of judgments to 
arrive at that which was previously unknown. Rea- 
soning is of two kinds, inductive and deductive. 
Inductive reasoning proceeds from particular observa- 
tions or experiences and goes to general truths or laws. 
Thus the law of gravitation is an inductive generaliza- 
tion based upon innumerable experiences. Deductive 
reasoning goes from the general to the particular. The 
mathematics are in the main deductive. Geometry, 
for instance, on the basis of general definitions and 
axioms, demonstrates a great variety of theorems. In- 
ductive and deductive reasoning are closely related, 
however, deduction constantly verifying the validity 
of inductive generalizations while induction groups 
and tests masses of deductive inferences. 

Practically all explanation is deductive in character. 
It consists in finding the general law under which the 
particular problem can be subsumed, and then deduc- 
ing the solution from the general law. The pupil who 
knows the relationship of the sides of a right triangle 
has the explanation of various problems as soon as 
he understands that certain lines are hypothenuse, per- 
pendicular, etc. To prove "prompting" a specific 
case of dishonesty or deceit will generally make clear 
the explanation of its evils. This view of explanation 



PSYCHOLOGY 21 

will be found to be of great service in countless appli- 
cations of pedagogic method. 

The Feelings and the Will. — This rough sketch of 
psychological principles would be incomplete without 
some slight reference to the feelings and the will. It 
may suffice to remind the reader that the mind is a 
unity. We must constantly be on our guard against 
too mechanical a view of the contents of consciousness. 
For clearness of description, the powers of the mind 
are considered separately, but in reality, no such sepa- 
ration exists. Every mental state is not only intelleC' 
tual but affective and conative as well. Of the various 
affective states, probably the most important for edu- 
cation is interest. The feeling of curiosity or wonder 
is the beginning of knowledge, and throughout life, 
interest engineers the mental train. The development 
of permanent worthy interests is essential to all true 
education. From the ethical standpoint, egoism must 
gradually give way to altruism. 

So far as the will is concerned, psychology's most 
useful contribution to pedagogy has been that of the 
Herbartians. Will depends upon the strength and 
organization of apperceptive systems. Control of the 
will means practically control of our ideas. A mind 
well stored with systematized idea groups, constantly 
directed by worthy interests and controlled by noble 
emotions and ideals, represents the goal of educational 
endeavor. In other words, the aim of education is 
character. 



CHAPTER III 
METHOD 

Method vs. Device. — It is the purpose of this chapter 
to clear up some misunderstandings and develop some 
general views in regard to method. In the first place, 
we must carefully distinguish between method and de- 
vice. The former term is general, the latter specific. 
That interested attention is necessary to lasting knowl- 
edge is a fundamental principle of method; employ- 
ing colored chalk to secure this attention is a device. 
Much pedagogic literature fails of its purpose because 
it is either too general and abstract for the ordinary 
teachers to apply or too specific to be of use in the 
diversity of situations in actual class-room work. Real 
pedagogy should inspire, but it must also direct. Mis- 
guided enthusiasm is almost as bad as lifeless instruc- 
tion. The philosophy of sound method is of inestim- 
able value to the teacher in so far as it gives her a 
scientific attitude toward reforms as distinguished 
from fads. The live teacher who attempts to keep 
abreast of the times is called upon almost daily to 
make this distinction. 

Education and Training. — Every teacher who pre- 
tends to be an educator should grasp the distinction 
between education and training. The word training, 

22 



METHOD 23 

strictly considered, should be applied only to the brute 
creation, very young children and the feeble minded. 
It is nothing more or less than building up associations 
on the basis of their pleasant or unpleasant conse- 
quences. The colt which feels the pain of the bit 
whenever he does the wrong thing, soon ceases. Many 
specific associations of this kind are made until all 
are formed that the animal's master thinks desirable. 
Training is then complete. Education, on the other 
hand, begins with training, but goes far beyond any 
system of mere associations. While pleasant and un- 
pleasant consequences of acts still have considerable 
motive power, the mind is governed by general ideas 
and principles, instead of by specific images. The 
growth of language has an important bearing upon 
the growth of education. The educated person, by 
means of his stock of generalizations, can react to novel 
situations in novel ways. Judgment and reasoning 
take the place of mere association. In this sense, 
man is, as Rosenkranz points out, the only educable 
being. 

Recapitulation. — The doctrine of evolution has led 
practically all modern scientists to view humanity as 
but a link in the chain of the animal creation. This 
doctrine has had a profound influence not only upon 
biology, but upon psychology and pedagogy as well. 
Among its numerous implications, that which interests 
us particularly is the theory of recapitulation. Baldly 
stated, this theory maintains that each individual goes 
through somewhat the same course of development as 
the race. The necessary inclusion of the word ' ' some- 



24 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

what ' ' indicates the uncertainty of the applications of 
the theory. We could scarcely demand, for example, 
because the religious development of the race has been 
from polytheism to monotheism that such should be the 
religious education of each individual. The fact, how- 
ever, that oral language was used for perhaps hun- 
dreds of thousands of years before written characters 
were invented, has an important bearing upon instruc- 
tion in written and oral speech. The greatest value 
of the theory of recapitulation, so far as education is 
concerned, seems to lie in its reinforcement or corrob- 
oration of principles worked out on a psychological 
or experimental basis. An illustration of this is af- 
forded by the intellectual epochs or stages of develop- 
ment from the predominance of perception in child- 
hood through imaginative activity in youth to the 
logical process of manhood. Again the pedagogical 
maxims : ' ' Proceed from the simple to the complex, ' ' 
"from the vague to the definite," "from the experi- 
mental to the scientific" receive additional force and 
confirmation from the Recapitulation Theory. 

The Fundamental Steps. — There are three fundamen- 
tal phases of every real teaching process, viz., prepara- 
tion, instruction (sometimes called presentation) and 
fixing. Although these three phases often overlap, 
they should be considered separately. 

The first of these, though extremely important, is 
sometimes disregarded. In teaching any subject the 
first question to be considered is one of ejective knowl- 
edge. "What ideas are now in the pupils' minds 
which can be used as an apperceptive basis for the new 



METHOD 25 

lesson?" "To what extent must they be intensified, 
cleared up, rearranged or otherwise modified?" 
Sometimes several lessons must be entirely devoted 
to the stage of preparation. Oftentimes the most ef- 
fective preparation consists in arousing in the pupils' 
minds the feeling of the need of the new knowledge. 
This amounts to a state of expectant attention — a 
most favorable receptive attitude. A child who has 
solved problems involving the square roots of perfect 
squares such as 9, 36, etc., is apt to be ready for the 
explanation of the process of extracting the square 
root of 8. 

Instruction. — Under this head might -be included all 
pedagogic method, but I limit the term to that impor- 
tant phase of the teaching process intervening between 
Preparation and Fixing. By far the most important 
principle of instruction is that of Self Activity. As 
was pointed out in the previous chapter, the uncer- 
tainty of ejective knowledge, even if there were no 
other reason, would render self activity indispensable. 
A teacher may describe and explain never so elabor- 
ately, and still her instruction may reach but a portion 
of the class. No two minds work at exactly the same 
rate or in exactly the same way. The pupil who finds 
out something for himself has not only the something 
but also the mental organization involved in the proc- 
ess of getting it, not merely the flower but the root 
and branch as well. The mental flower thus grown 
will thrive and new buds will spring from the same 
stem. This is not a mere figurative analogy, but one 
that will justify faithful application. But self ac- 



26 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

tivity requires constant watching and guidance. If 
the class, as a whole, is to attain the intellectual goal E, 
let the teacher set up a number of intermediate goals, 
A, B, C, D, each of which is to be reached by the pu- 
pils' own exertions. By careful tests and individual 
observation see that A has been reached before B is at- 
tempted. So long as systems of class-room organiza- 
tion require that all the pupils of a certain grade shall 
be driven abreast, hopeless differences of intellectual 
level must be avoided. Of course there are many 
things which a class must be told, many things which 
it would be a waste of time to attempt to develop. 
Nothing but tact and pedagogic insight can decide 
these points. In spite of some recent slurs and bur- 
lesques upon the development methods of instruction, 
it is probably true that most teachers tell their classes 
too much, and miss many splendid opportunities for 
self activity. 

Analogy from Mechanics. — Much of the telling or ex- 
plaining that goes on in the class-room results from the 
fear that too much time will be required for self active 
methods. This is usually an unwarranted and falla- 
cious fear. Short-cut methods in education are gener- 
ally bad. A few things, known thoroughly and 
worked out by the pupils themselves, will often ex- 
pedite the acquisition of subsequent knowledge. We 
gain time by losing it. The well known mechanical 
principle of the lever has an illumining bearing upon 
education. An important form of leverage consists 
in gaining power at the expense of time. By a proper 
system of pulleys, one man can, though very slowly, 



METHOD 27 

raise a weight of ten tons or more. What is lost in 
velocity is gained in power. So it is in education. 
Where no time is wasted but serious work earnestly 
and steadily performed, a tremendous mental power 
may be developed, a power which will render the ac- 
quisition of later knowledge easier and more expedi- 
tious. The stored-up energy will, as it were, readily 
convert itself into subsequent velocity. 

Kinds of Instruction. — Many different types or kinds 
of lessons have been described and named by educators. 
Many of them, such as the Socratic, are really included 
under self activity. This method, named for the 
Greek philosopher, is generally applied to that form of 
instruction which consists in classifying, arranging, 
and oftentimes labeling knowledge already in the pu- 
pils' minds. The teacher questions so as to bring out 
the desired points, e. g., any grammar school child has 
sufficient knowledge of nouns and verbs to render the 
Socratic teaching of these parts of speech relatively 
simple. 

The terms inductive and deductive, as applied to 
method, are self-explanatory. Where generalizations 
are to be taught, the teacher should see to it that suffi- 
cient details are grasped by the pupil to be used as a 
rational basis for the law or principle. This is in- 
ductive. The rules of spelling illustrate a series of 
such generalizations which grammar school pupils 
might advantageously work out inductively. The de- 
ductive method is exemplified in every case where a 
general principle is appealed to to explain some par- 
ticular fact. Much of the teacher's work is thus de- 



28 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

ductive in character, e. g., the respiratory movements 
are most satisfactorily taught as deduced from the 
laws of atmospheric pressure. 

Analytic and Synthetic should be carefully distin- 
guished from Inductive and Deductive methods. 
Analysis proceeds from the whole to the parts. An 
analytic method of teaching reading starts with the 
sentence, then takes the words and finally the com- 
ponent sounds. Synthesis, on the other hand, begins 
with the parts and builds up the whole. A syn- 
thetic method of teaching geography would begin, not 
with the world as a whole, but with the various land 
and water divisions and combine them into a mental 
world. Analysis and synthesis supplement and com- 
plete each other. 

The Type Method, as its name implies, consists in 
building up a typical or representative view. It aims 
at the same end as the Inductive Method but attempts 
to attain it in a different way. Instead of a number 
of individual cases being examined and compared, one 
typical case is minutely and elaborately considered, 
care being taken that the salient or essential charac- 
teristics shall stand out prominently. The connota- 
tion is thus emphasized as it would be in a definition, 
but the elaborateness and interest of this method lift 
it far above mere defining. We may take an illus- 
tration from the study of United States history. The 
early voyages of discovery and exploration had many 
points in common. Instead of studying each one sepa- 
rately and independently, one should be taken and 
taught in as interesting and elaborate a manner as 



METHOD 29 

desirable. The other voyages could then be taught in 
reference to the type, differentiating points being em- 
phasized. Teachers will find the type method of 
teaching an interesting way of presenting a great va- 
riety of topics. 

The Lecture Method has little, if any, place in the 
elementary school. Except as illustrated by lantern 
views or other objective helps, this method is risky, 
even in secondary education. Its lack of appeal to 
self activity is its principal condemnation. In con- 
nection with university work where the subject mat- 
ter is not to be had in book form or so scattered as 
to be practically inaccessible, the lecture method may 
become necessary. 

The Text Book as a method of teaching is capable 
of various uses. It is highly important that the pupil 
should be able to obtain knowledge from the printed 
page. To help him to do this is an essential part of 
the teacher's work. A simple and helpful method is 
to require the pupils to write the answers to some 
carefully selected questions. Study of a text — either 
in school or at home — can thus be given a much needed 
definiteness. The giving of these questions may either 
follow or precede the teaching of the lesson. With 
older pupils, it is a good plan to have them write the 
questions and then distribute commendation accord- 
ing to the insight shown into the salient features of 
the lesson. Practice in abstracting portions of the 
text is invaluable for older pupils. This is as diffi- 
cult to do well as it is useful, and requires the teach- 
er's constant guidance. These are but a few sugges- 



30 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

tions of ways in which the text book may be made a 
definite help. Unfortunately some teachers still as- 
sign pages to be studied with no suggestion or direc- 
tions as to how to do it. Their vexation at the re- 
sults of such assignments is ample retribution for 
them, but what about the children ? 

Fixing. — After the instruction or presentation, and 
often during it, comes the factor of fixing what has 
been learned. By fixing, I mean more than mere re- 
tention or power of recall. I mean that thorough 
organization of the knowledge that will serve to recall 
it at the proper time and in the proper way. Knowl- 
edge is not really fixed until it is an integral part 
of the whole mental content, until it is bound up with 
worthy motives and ideals and can be applied intelli- 
gently. Thus the fixing of knowledge becomes the 
most important aim of teaching. What we call drill 
is, of course, a part of the fixing process. Repetition 
is necessary to give the knowledge permanent mental 
lodgment. But this repetition must not be lifeless, 
not monotonous and dull. The absence of novelty 
must be compensated for, else interest will flag. A 
large factor of the teacher's success consists in her 
ability skilfully to disguise repetition. Reviews are 
of extreme importance. They should not be a mere 
rehash of the subject matter, but should present it in 
fresh guise, emphasizing wherever possible, larger 
unities and new relationships, thus weaving the knowl- 
edge into the whole mental fabric. More important 
still, reviews should reveal new and interesting appli- 
cations of what has been learned. In this manner the 



METHOD 31 

practical or ethical end of teaching is secured and it 
approximates or actually becomes real education. 

Learn to Do by Doing. — Although almost all that has 
been described above in regard to method has had 
reference to intellectual development, the same princi- 
ples apply with equal force to the active or doing side 
of mind. The old adage "We learn to do by doing" 
has a sound psychological basis. Just as in the growth 
of intelligence the concept properly formed is the 
flowering of a varied perceptive experience, so in the 
arts, muscular facility or proficiency is the outgrowth 
of a number of distinct attempts. The result is a 
motor attitude — a kind of muscular concept. This 
arises from repeated associations between the essential 
movements and the desired result. The superfluous 
or accidental movements come to be ignored and 
omitted, until finally there remain only those move- 
ments which are necessary. The teacher can expedite 
the process by commending good attempts, by em- 
phasizing the essential factors and discouraging the 
unnecessary. The force of example is also potent. 
Grace is the aesthetic description of the absolute elimi- 
nation of the unessential elements. The pupils' own 
efforts are as indispensable in acquiring a manual art 
as they are perhaps in the building up of the concept. 

The Test. — It is the uncertainty of ejective knowl- 
edge which makes necessary constant testing. This 
will be an essential factor of the teaching process 
until phrenology, telepathy, or some other way of get- 
ting at the mental contents of others has been per- 
fected. This is as likely as the establishment of com- 



32 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

munication with Mars — not impossible but not apt 
to occur tomorrow. In the meantime, the teacher 
must not be misled by prompt responses of a few bright 
pupils into the belief that the class as a whole com- 
prehends her instruction. Nor can polite, quiet de- 
meanor always be construed as indicating real atten- 
tion. This if any phase of the teaching process de- 
mands eternal vigilance. Tests may be formal or in- 
formal, oral or written. They enter with equal 
importance into each of the three steps — preparation, 
instruction, fixing. 

The term recitation has often been used to mean an 
exercise where the pupils' knowledge is tested and the 
results, it may be, recorded. Recitation is one of the 
altogether too numerous pedagogical terms which have 
been used in so many different senses as to be rendered 
almost worthless. Although used by some writers in 
so broad a sense as to include the entire process of 
teaching, usage seems to warrant the application of 
the term to the testing (usually oral) of the pupils' 
knowledge. It is in this sense that the term will be 
used in this book. 

The oral work of the pupil is frequently much more 
than test. It is good teaching oftentimes to require 
a pupil to recite that which we are sure he knows 
thoroughly. Self-confidence as well as a more com- 
plete organization of his knowledge result from such 
exercises. The bright pupil should be given more op- 
portunity to express himself. Docendo discimus 
might be construed by the pupil as "We learn by re- 
citing. ' ' 



METHOD 33 

The Examination. — This term is also indefinite. 
Usage seems to restrict it to a kind of formal test 
(generally, though not always, written) of a rather 
extensive character. Examination is a test of work 
covering a rather long period — a month or a term — or 
of the completion of a certain portion of the course. 
Such reviews undoubtedly have great value. Not only 
does the examination give the pupil a means of ap- 
praising his own progress, but the intensive prepara- 
tion which it necessitates is especially valuable to older 
pupils. Examinations have fallen into some disrepute 
in various sections of the country, largely because they 
have attempted to test the pupils' fitness for promo- 
tion as well as to establish for the teacher a standard 
of work. As was pointed out long ago by E. Emerson 
White, this double attempt is foredoomed to failure. 
The logical person to give the examination is the 
teacher herself. Occasionally she may profit consider- 
ably by an examination assigned by some one else — 
principal or superintendent. Such examinations 
should be prepared with the greatest care, so that the 
work may be really standardized. Properly con- 
ducted, they are inspiring to both teacher and pupil. 
They should as a rule be unheralded and in no way 
influence the promotion of the pupils. 

The Program. — Writers on education emphasize the 
fact that certain subjects are more fatiguing than 
others, require more concentration or effort. It is 
natural to put these subjects in those parts of the 
day when the mind is most vigorous. This would be 
early in the morning session or after a period of re- 



34 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

laxation. There is considerable ambiguity in these 
statements. Mathematics is generally regarded as a 
difficult subject, yet some portions of it are decidedly 
easier than man}' parts of history or geography. 
Most educators put gymnastics among the very fatigu- 
ing subjects. Others regard it as a form of relaxation. 
The fact of the matter seems to be that the learning 
of new gymnastic movements does make a considerable 
demand upon voluntary attention, whereas the prac- 
tice of movements which have become automatic fur- 
nishes a good form of rhythmic relaxation. The learn- 
ing of any new subject requires concentration. It is 
therefore a mistake to relegate any particular subject 
to the fag end of each day. Every program should be 
flexible enough to admit of shifting subjects from day 
to day. It is probably an unwise procedure to pre- 
pare a definite program for a longer period than a 
week. It is also necessary to remember that young 
children cannot concentrate for so long a period as 
older pupils. The length of a lesson demanding at- 
tention varies from about ten or fifteen minutes in 
first grade to thirty or forty-five minutes in the highest 
grades and high school. To a certain extent, relaxa- 
tion is provided by suitable changes of subjects. For 
example, a difficult arithmetic lesson might wisely be 
followed by rote singing or automatic gymnastics; 
grammar by history, etc. It is no easy matter to ar- 
range a satisfactory program. The considerations 
above outlined will be found helpful. Of course, re- 
cesses or periods of complete relaxation must also be 
provided. The time allotment for the various sub- 



METHOD 35 

jeets has not been discussed in this connection, as it 
is generally provided for by the superintendent or 
principal. 

Correlation. — As was pointed out in the previous 
chapter under attention and apperception, the really 
educated mind is the well organized or systematized 
mind. The application of this psychological fact is 
too obvious to need further illustration. The term 
correlation is often applied to the grouping or con- 
necting of kinds of knowledge. Countless opportuni- 
ties for correlation will present themselves to the live 
teacher. The land and water divisions of eastern 
America can be most economically taught synchron- 
ously with the history of the early explorations. The 
correlation of certain laws of physics with the teach- 
ing of physiology will be apparent. If dictation ex- 
ercises are used, they would better furnish drill or 
review of topics already learned. So various mathe- 
matical problems give similar opportunities. Thought- 
ful correlation will enable the teacher to do more ef- 
fective work in a shorter time. Many of the so-called 
ills of an overcrowded curriculum may thus be rem- 
edied. At the same time, there is secured for the pu- 
pils the larger educational good of mental organiza- 
tion. 



PART II— METHODOLOGY 

CHAPTER IV 
READING 

What Reading Is. — Reading has secured its promi- 
nent place as the first of the three R's by merit and 
not by mere tradition. Like many other educational 
terms, the word reading is used in different senses. 
There are at least two widely different notions im- 
plied in the term, first, getting the meaning from the 
written or printed page, and, second, uttering the 
words aloud for others to understand. These two no- 
tions are so distinct that I reserve the second for sep- 
arate treatment under the head of Oral Expression. 
It would undoubtedly be a great gain if these two 
notions were kept more distinct in the class-room. 
This chapter will concern itself entirely with reading 
in the first sense — getting the meaning from the re- 
corded words. Two fundamental problems press for 
solution; first, teaching the child how to read, and, 
second, determining what he shall read. The first 
is a problem of pedagogical mechanics; the second 
practically identifies reading with literature in its 
broadest sense. 

Value of Reading. — The great value of reading (in 
37 



38 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

the first sense) is evident. So essential is reading to 
any kind of proper or useful citizenship that many 
governments have made school attendance compulsory. 
The time is probably not far off when none but the 
mentally deficient will be unable to read. I need not 
dwell upon this obvious utilitarian value. As a means 
of aiding in the attainment of happiness, the ability 
to read is also of great value. The educated man is 
never lonely while he has a book. The inexhaustible 
ocean of literature ripples along the glimmering sands 
or dashes its spray against the rocks for an appre- 
ciative reading world. There is an old German adage 
that man is what he eats ; it would be truer to say that 
man is what he reads. So far as the happiness and 
moral values of reading are concerned, the schools 
can give to their pupils nothing better than a taste 
for good literature. 

Primary Reading. — The method of beginning read- 
ing has been a prolific source of dispute among writers 
on education. The end to be attained is simple so far 
as its statement goes, viz., to enable the child to 
translate immediately the visual symbol (the written 
or printed word) into the auditory and articulatory 
symbol (the spoken word). The nature of the lan- 
guage will, of course, influence the methods to be used. 
In an unalphabetical language, like the Chinese, there 
must be a separate association between each word and 
its idea. In a phonetic language, like German, the 
task is comparatively simple. In English, the teach- 
ing of reading is tremendously complicated by the 
silent letters and varieties of sound for the same let- 



READING 39 

ter. The so-called absurdities of English spelling (of 
course they are not absurdities, but results of well 
known historic causes) have led to a number of special 
devices to facilitate the first teaching of reading. 

The Psychological Basis of Reading. — The child 
conies to school with a considerable vocabulary. Even 
at the age of three or four, children can often converse 
quite glibly. All their words are symbols of more or 
less distinct ideas. These ideas may be of objects, ac- 
tions, feelings, classes, relationships, or what-not. 
Most of them are somewhat general in character. 
When a young child of four or five years hears the 
word ' ' dog, ' ' it probably calls up a hazy generic image 
of dog as a class idea. In other words, the spoken or 
heard word has associated itself with an idea of a some- 
what general or conceptual character. If this repre- 
sents the condition of the pupil's mental content on 
first entering school, it would seem unpsychological to 
attempt to build up new associations between the visual 
symbol and the general ideas. Kather let the old as- 
sociations with the auditory symbol stand, and connect 
the new visual symbol with the auditory. It will not 
be long before the visual will at once call up the idea, 
but it should do so at first through the medium of the 
spoken word. When the written or printed word 
"cat" unfailingly suggests the spoken word cat to the 
child, the teacher may feel satisfied that he can read 
the word. He may not be able to describe or define 
a cat, but the teacher's specific work in this case is 
reading, not zoology. Illustrations add greatly to the 
interest of a reading primer, but they should not be 



40 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

used instead of words. The written word does not 
stand fundamentally for the object, but for the spoken 
word. What is the teacher who insists upon the writ- 
ten words calling up the objects going to do with those 
easy words like if, go, with, and, etc.? 

Considerable corroboration is given to the theory 
here maintained by the Recapitulation doctrine. When 
we consider how recent has been the invention of writ- 
ing, we can realize that for ages the great concepts of 
life and destiny as well as countless less important 
generalizations have been crystalized in oral and audi- 
tory symbols. It is but natural that the life of the 
child should take the same course. 

Sight Words. — It is a good plan, and one often fol- 
lowed, to begin the work in reading by teaching a 
number of familiar words in short sentences. These 
words, known as sight words, form the basis of sub- 
sequent work. They should be words taken from the 
vocabulary of the pupils in the class. This is im- 
portant as it is absolutely necessary that from the 
very beginning the pupils should regard writing or 
printing as but another kind of symbolism. Again, 
consideration should be given in the selection to 
words which will furnish suitable material for later 
phonic analysis. The first month of the term might 
be well spent in familiarizing the class with a number 
of sight words, using them in various interesting com- 
binations and encouraging the pupils to suggest little 
sentences and write them upon the blackboard and 
on paper at their seats. 

Teaching Phonetics. — The title of this paragraph 



READING 41 

sounds rather ambitious as applied to the teaching 
of tirst grade pupils. Still, an elementary course in 
phonetics seems the only rational way of unlocking 
for the children the doors to the rapid, successful ac- 
quisition of reading. As was stated above, the mat- 
ter is complicated by the unphonetic character of the 
English language. Various systems have been de- 
vised to overcome the difficulty. The names of the 
letters, as in the old alphabetic method, are no longer 
used. They added obviously one more complication. 
If our letter names had been as distinct from the 
sounds as was the case in Greek, they would not have 
constituted such a disturbing factor. Each letter 
should be a visual symbol suggesting a certain sound. 
All the interesting devices possible, pictorial or other, 
should be used to intensify these associations. They 
must be fixed by drill. Silent letters may at first 
be indicated either by a light line drawn through the 
letter or a variation in type, the latter method being 
perhaps the preferable. There are various combina- 
nations of letters (compound phonograms) which 
have the same sound in numerous words (ough is not 
one of them). Ight, Hon, ain, etc., illustrate such 
groups. These may profitably be taught as compound 
symbols, receiving the same kind of drill as the in- 
dividual letters. The synthesis or blending of the 
phonic elements of a word is an important and in- 
trinsically interesting exercise. 

Although phonetics, as above outlined, furnishes the 
key to ever so many words, there remains a great 
number in the unclassified column. All of them have 



42 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

some phonetic element, even aisle contains an i and 
and I. It is of doubtful wisdom to attempt to give 
the pupils rational associations with such words. The 
phonetic elements in the words will probably make 
some appeal to the pupils anyway. These words are 
best taught as wholes, to be recognized promptly and 
pronounced when seen. The writing of such words 
involving, as it does, an exact knowledge of their 
letters will be considered in a subsequent chapter on 
spelling. 

Script and Printing. — It seems desirable that the be- 
ginnings of reading and writing should go hand in 
hand. This necessitates that the first reading shall 
be from script letters. It would be confusing to use 
both the script and print forms. The transition can 
readily be made later. It should not be attempted 
before a good stock of sight words has been acquired. 
In fact, it would not be amiss to spend the entire first 
term on script forms alone. The transition to print 
will be rendered easier if the system of penmanship 
is comparatively simple, i. e., if it approximates the 
print forms. 

Learning the Alphabet. — Learning one's A, B, C's, 
as the cornerstone of education, still maintains much 
of its traditional force. This is especially true of 
persons not pedagogically trained. The names of 
the letters in their proper order has considerable 
utilitarian value, as the alphabetical order is the 
natural one in dictionaries, directories, various books 
of reference, indexes, etc. The child would scarcely 
have occasion to need the alphabet before the third 



READING 43 

year of school life. It might profitably be taught at 
the beginning of that year to those who have escaped 
its acquisition in the nursery. When the makers of 
children's toy blocks and picture books feel the in- 
fluence of modern pedagogy, the teaching of the al- 
phabet will assume greater importance as an element 
of the curriculum. 

Advanced Reading. — By the end of the first year and 
a half or two years, the child should have conquered 
the mechanics of reading. The printed word should 
immediately suggest the spoken word, and in the case 
of familiar words, the visual symbol will generally sug- 
gest the idea. The treatment of unfamiliar words 
now assumes importance. In the first four years of 
school life, it may be laid down as an important prin- 
ciple that new words should, so far as possible, be in- 
troduced orally and become part of the pupils' vo- 
cabulary before they are read or written. This is a 
logical outcome of the same psychological principles 
which led us to insist on the association between the 
spoken and the written word in the beginning of read- 
ing. A large part of the elementary teacher's work 
should consist of enlarging the pupils' spoken vo- 
cabulary. 

As the child grows older and develops intellect- 
ually, he will frequently meet new words in the visual 
or printed form. This is unavoidable. Often the 
teacher will find it wise merely to give a synonymous 
expression for the word in its context, relying on its 
recurrence in various contexts to fix the concept. 
Some words may remain mere sight acquaintances 



44 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

and never enter the realm of spoken language. For 
most persons this result is inevitable. The colloquial 
vocabulary differentiates itself, and properly so, from 
the literary. The validity of this distinction is com- 
ing to be recognized not only in this connection but in 
grammar as well. 

In the higher elementary grades, pupils should be 
encouraged to use dictionaries. The value of the 
dictionary habit will be discussed more fully in the 
next chapter. Here it may suffice to direct attention 
to the necessity of using the dictionary to ascertain the 
meanings of unfamiliar words. The direct aim is to 
enable the pupil to grasp the meaning of the word in 
the context where it has occurred, not necessarily to 
enable him to use the word himself. 

Advanced reading, in the sense of thought getting, 
should include much silent reading. This has an 
economic advantage in that the whole class can do it 
simultaneously. In addition, it prepares the child 
for the reading of adult life which is almost always 
silent. The study periods of school life are all, in a 
way, reading exercises. Whether the material read 
is poetry or geography, it should be followed by 
searching tests and interesting commentary by the 
teacher. These tests should not be merely of the 
child's recollection and comprehension of what has 
been read, but should also test the sprouting of his at- 
tention. Ideas related to and springing from the sub- 
ject matter are often of greater value than the mere 
retention of the passage itself. 

What to Read. — The second problem of reading as 



READING 45 

thought getting concerns the material or what should 
be read. As was pointed out in the beginning of this 
chapter, the wealth of books of all descriptions makes 
the proper selection particularly difficult. From the 
utilitarian point of view, the book to be read would be 
determined by one's view in regard to the practical 
aim of education. Scientific and descriptive works 
would of course be included. "We may omit from the 
present discussion those books on history, geography, 
etc., which though, in a strict sense, reading, are 
generally included as subjects in the curriculum to 
be taught in a specific way. The material of read- 
ing, exclusive of these curricular subjects, then be- 
comes practically synonymous with literature. In 
fact, it would clear up pedagogical terminology con- 
siderably, if we employed the word literature to desig- 
nate this whole field of reading in the elementary 
school. 

Courses of study should be mapped out, as they are 
in some cities, giving specific detailed lists of books to 
be read. There should also be a clearly marked dif- 
ferentiation among three forms of literary reading 
work — (a) that which the pupil should read to him- 
self silently (b) that which he should read aloud and 
(c) that which the teacher should read to the class. 
The treatment of (b) will be deferred to the chapter 
on Oral Expression. The determination of (a) will 
depend upon the age and intelligence of the pupil. 
The power of literary appreciation varies tremen- 
dously among different pupils of the same grade. 
The reading class should be divided into groups on 



46 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

the basis of this variation, and different books sup- 
plied to different sections. Written answers to care- 
fully selected questions on what they have read should 
frequently follow this reading. 

There are many literary works which young pupils 
are capable of understanding and enjoying if they 
hear them well read aloud. The teacher should be 
supplied with a list of such books and there 
should be a supplementary optional list as well. Du- 
plication of books in different grades must be avoided. 
Every teacher should possess the ability to read aloud 
in a clear and interesting manner. This is as neces- 
sary a qualification for the grade teacher as is the 
ability to sing for the kindergartner. 

Nursery Rhymes and Jingles. — Although not usually 
accorded the dignity of literary worth, nursery 
rhymes and jingles are an important element of read- 
ing material. They form a legitimate part of our 
social inheritance. Many of them are known to the 
child before entering school. They thus tend to viv- 
ify the reading lesson and make it real and valuable. 
They should as a rule be read aloud by the children 
just as most poetry should. Rhyme and rhythm are 
meant for the ear primarily, not for the eye. There 
is an additional value in the fact that many of these 
jingles give a good vocal training as well as an ap- 
preciation of metrical construction. If any other ar- 
gument is needed for the inclusion of this material, 
it may be said that children enjoy them. Other things 
being equal, pleasure giving power is a potent quali- 



READING 47 

fication for anything. Of course, in the case of the 
birch rod, other things are not equal. 

Fairy Tales and Myths. — These also form part of our 
social inheritance. It is perfectly just to say to the 
adult person who does not know who Bluebeard or 
Sinbad is that his education has been seriously neg- 
lected. These romantic characters live in the fanci- 
ful world of make-believe, but in a deep sense they are 
real just the same. Circe, Cinderella, and Ali Baba, 
none of whom ever lived, are more distinct person- 
alities to my imagination than are Charlemagne and 
William the Conqueror, both of whom I am told 
really existed. The joy of expectancy on my little 
girl's face as she settles down on my knee for a 
story of fairies or elves but reflects the sympathetic 
joy in my own heart. When the inevitable "Once 
upon a time" has rolled up the curtain, happiness 
reigns supreme. What though the story be not true ! 
It has served a better purpose than countless investi- 
gations of bespectacled German scientists. It has 
made at least two individuals happy. Even hard, dry 
facts must stand this test before their worth is proved. 
But after all, facts are only facts. They are but 
shadows compared with the reality of joys and hopes. 
Let no one dare carelessly strike down that which has 
brought happiness to countless souls! The fairy tale 
will not yield to the narrow dogmatism of science. 

Of course there are various kinds of fairy tales. 
The only sure criterion is the test of time. Human 
nature has changed but little in the historic period 



48 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

of the world. Those tales and myths which have sur- 
vived are best fitted for modern reading. The Ara- 
bian Nights and Grimm's Fairy Tales represent proba- 
bly the two best collections. Robert Louis Stevenson, 
Lewis Carroll, and Rudyard Kipling have furnished 
various fanciful tales which show great insight into 
child life and child heart. Whether future genera- 
tions wjll verify this judgment, time alone can tell. 

The moral value of fairy tales must not be over- 
looked, though we must guard against such an over- 
indulgence as to make the child dreamy and impatient 
of life 's slow but sure realities. On the aesthetic side, 
fairy tales lay the basis for the true appreciation of 
art, which in its best forms makes its appeal to the 
play of fancy and the appreciation of make-believe. 
Morally, the fairy tale is to be recommended by the 
glimpse that it gives of a just distribution of rewards 
and punishments. Real life will soon enough disabuse 
the child's mind of reliance on the infallibility of the 
ethical regime. Many modern writers of stories for 
children fail in that they make the moral lesson too 
prominent. Even a child possesses enough human in- 
dependence to rebel at having his reasonings and de- 
ductions made for him. Indulgence in this kind of 
moral feeding is apt to lead to a "hunger strike." 

There is, in conclusion, a considerable conventional 
value in fairy tale lore. Countless allusions to the 
characters occur in all forms of literature. Cinder- 
ella and Aladdin are referred to as often perhaps as 
are Moses and Julius Cresar. Nor are the allusions 
confined to the characters alone. Even details of the 



READING 49 

stories are supposed to be common property of the 
educated. No footnote should be necessary to ex- 
plain Longfellow's reference to Hawthorne's un- 
finished writing : 

The unfinished window in Aladdin's tower 
Unfinished must remain. 

Almost all that has been said about the fairy tale 
applies with equal force to the myths, heroic tales, 
and fables which have come down to us. In fact, 
many of them are in substance the same. Sinbad the 
Sailor is but an Arabian Odysseus, and the Sleeping 
Beauty of Grimm's is another Brunhilde. The fable 
has perhaps an additional moral value in that it gives 
a view of worldliness which may serve to temper the 
extreme idealism of the fairy tale. In all these stories 
there is, besides, a convenient and often striking epit- 
ome of types of character or behavior. "Sour 
grapes" is a most useful addition to our vocabulary, 
as is "Dog in the manger," etc., etc. Sir Galahad 
personifies for us a group of ethical characteristics, 
while Cinderella's sisters and the Barber's brother, 
Alnaschar, furnish type lessons, as it were, in envy 
and avarice respectively. 

Poetry. — It is a sad but true commentary on our 
education that comparatively few adults read and en- 
joy poetry. It would not be fair to lay the entire 
blame for this upon the school, although much of it 
belongs there. The poetry of a nation represents, as 
a rule, its highest literary achievement. The inner 
life of a people is crystalized in its songs. This is as 



50 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

true today of poets like Swinburne and Noyes as it 
was in the pre-writing ages of the epics of the Greeks 
and the Finns. 

As poetry is intended primarily for the ear, there 
should be little if any verse read silently in the first 
five years of school life. Considerable poetry should 
be read aloud by the teacher, particularly dialect 
poetry such as Riley's, which pupils enjoy hearing but 
not reading themselves. Some poems should be read 
by individual pupils in the classroom, and numerous 
short poetical selections should be memorized. The 
test of this memorization should be its oral recita- 
tion. Occasionally, though seldom, the selections 
should be written by the pupils. This is economy of 
time, if mere testing is the object, and also serves 
to emphasize the verse form. 

One potent cause of the indifference to or dislike 
for poetry on the part of many persons is found in the 
use of poetical selections for grammatical analysis and 
parsing. This will be discussed at length in the chap- 
ter on Grammar. Here it may suffice to call atten- 
tion to the pernicious practice of taking a long poem, 
using it as a medical student uses a cadaver, and 
then expecting the pupils to have an appreciation for 
its beauty. This is the way the author, as a school 
boy, made his first acquaintance with Scott's Lady of 
the Lake. To this day, I never think of the line 

"The stag at eve had drunk his fill" 

without a painful recollection of rewriting it, chang- 
ing the voice of the verb: "His fill had been drunk 



READING 51 

by the stag at eve"!! The teacher, probably without 
any definite aim or perhaps in consideration for the 
continuity of the story, took us through the book, page 
after page, as though Scott had planned a graded 
series of language lessons in his metrical tale. As I 
think of the process now, I can compare it to nothing 
more appropriate than running a lawn mower over a 
bed of beautiful flowers. 

A teacher with a true appreciation of poetry will 
have but little trouble inspiring her pupils. Select 
your material carefully and decide in advance what 
you are going to read to them and what they shall 
read to you. If happiness is an end of education, no 
greater legacy can be given by the school than a love 
for good poetry. The teacher should never forget 
that poetry was and is written to be read not dissected. 
Of course, at times, obscurities of diction and con- 
struction must be cleared up by the teacher, and even 
metrical forms may need explanation, but these mat- 
ters are all secondary and must never destroy the true 
aim of the work — literary appreciation. 

Prose Fiction. — The novel and the short story repre- 
sent the most popular forms of prose fiction today. 
They are both fairly recent developments in the his- 
tory of literature. This makes selections in this field 
difficult. Survival through the ages as in the case 
of the Fairy Tale cannot be appealed to here as a 
criterion. Literary criticism, however, may compen- 
sate for the lack of historic perspective. The consen- 
sus of critics, for example, has fixed the novels of 
Fielding, Sterne, Scott, George Eliot, Dickens, 



52 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

Thackeray as reliable literary standards. Many a 
child is old enough to have a novel read to him before 
he is able to appreciate it himself. The author read 
Mark Twain's Prince and Pauper to a class of fifth 
year pupils with much apparent pleasure to the chil- 
dren. Here and there a verbal commentary, explana- 
tion, or paraphrase was found necessary. As a re- 
sult of the reading, considerable interest was aroused 
in the writings of Mark Twain and the library was be- 
sieged for Huckleberry Finn, Tom Sawyer and the 
rest. Moreover, the important point to remember is 
that not only were the pupils afforded innocent en- 
joyment, but a taste for good literature was developed. 
These children were being prepared for the duties of 
parenthood. Their children would probably not need 
the school inspiration for good reading, but would get 
it at home. It would be time well spent if at least 
one hour a week were devoted to the reading of good 
representative novels by the teachers to their classes. 
Many teachers have found the last hour of the school 
week to be a good time for such work. 

In regard to very recent fiction, the safest plan is 
to await a reliable literary consensus. The six best 
sellers may safely wait until Silas Mamer, Ivanhoe, 
David Copperfield, and Vanity Fair have been en- 
joyed. Without presuming to judge for posterity, it 
would seem as though the tremendous output of novels 
in our day, while bound to produce something of last- 
ing value, will be in the main ephemeral. A desire 
to pander to a fleeting and ofttimes vicious public 
taste and to a shallow philosophy of life make much 



READING 53 

of this stuff unavailable for reading material either in 
the home or the school. 

The short story has had such a remarkable develop- 
ment in the last hundred years that it may now claim 
a separate place as a species of literary production. 
Monthly and weekly periodicals of all sorts furnish 
ever so many excellent short stories, many of which 
can be found suitable for school use. No child should 
go out from the elementary school without a fair ac- 
quaintance with the best American magazines and 
some knowledge of their characteristics. Of course 
there are many short-story writers who may be said 
to have become classic. Poe, Hawthorne, Kipling, and 
Stevenson have permanent niches in the literary Hall 
of Fame. Nor should this work be limited to English 
writers. Good translations from the French, German, 
Italian, etc., should also be read. It is certainly a nar- 
row provincialism which would permit a boy to go out 
into the world in entire ignorance of Balzac, de Mau- 
passant, Goethe, Cervantes, Ibsen, Boccaccio, and hosts 
of other non-English writers in the various fields of 
literature. It is a sad fallacy to demand the read- 
ing of these foreign writers in the original. Such an 
impossible standard of attainment means practically 
locking the doors to much of the world's best litera- 
ture. We do not require that the Bible be read in 
Hebrew, then why must ablatives and indirect dis- 
course bar the way to Ovid and Virgil? 

The Newspaper. — The modern newspaper is the most 
widely read of all publications. It contains every 
variety of literary output, even to the serial novel. It 



54 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

has become as necessary to home life as the tooth- 
brush and player piano. All will recall Whittier's 
lines of joy after a week's deprivation: 

At last the floundering carrier bore 
Tbe village paper to our door. 

Welcome to us its week-old news, 

Its corner for the rustic Muse, 

Its monthly gauge of snow and rain ; 

Its record, mingling in a breath 

The wedding bell and dirge of death; 

Jest, anecdote, and love-lorn tale, 

The latest culprit sent to jail; 

Its hue and cry of stolen and lost, 

Its vendue sales and goods at cost, 

And traffic calling loud for gain. 

We felt the stir of hall and street, 

The pulse of life that round us beat; 

The chill embargo of the snow 

Was melted in the genial glow; 

Wide swung again our ice-locked door, 

And all the world was ours once more! 

From the standpoint of the present chapter, we 
must inquire what use, if any, can be made of the 
newspaper as reading material in the school room. In 
subsequent chapters we shall consider other educa- 
tional aspects of the newspaper, e. g., in connection 
with written language, history, civics, etc. It would 
seem to be a good plan for the pupils to have some 
acquaintance with all the newspapers of their city, 
just as we pointed out in connection with the maga- 



READING 55 

zines. They should be led to have a natural abhor- 
rence of the tawdry or sensational and a proper re- 
spect for sane and solid journalism. This would 
scarcely be possible below the higher grammar grades. 
In these grades, however, and even lower, instruc- 
tive exercises in reading newspapers could be had, and 
some time each day might profitably be spent in read- 
ing current events. Work of this kind can be made 
as entertaining as instructive. 

Other Material. — The author is not attempting in 
this chapter an exhaustive description or catalogue of 
all forms of reading material. Tales of adventure, 
travel, history, biography, and the drama should, how- 
ever, be mentioned. Biography in particular has 
great inspirational value. In spite of much shallow 
criticism, I venture to recommend Franklin's Auto- 
biography for all grammar school pupils. Among 
tales of adventure, Gulliver's Travels, Robinson Cru- 
soe, and Treasure Island simply must be read. So 
must the Homeric Epics and Don Quixote. Although 
drama is usually postponed until the latter part of 
secondary education, I think some dramatic works 
could profitably be read to the children of the elemen- 
tary school. Shakespeare in particular will be found 
to make a wonderful appeal to 7th and 8th year pu- 
pils. Dramatic literature has enjoyed a renascence in 
the last fifty years and it behooves the live teacher to 
keep abreast of the spirit of the times. Maeterlinck 's 
Blue Bird would be enjoyed by pupils as early as the 
third school year. Moreover, it should be remembered 
that the dramatic instinct is strong in children. 



56 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

Any account of literary material would be notor- 
iously incomplete if it failed to mention that book of 
books — the Bible. Considered merely as a human 
production, we have in the Bible a veritable store- 
house of all descriptions of literary art. The nar- 
rowness and jealousies of religious sects have retarded 
the educational use of this material, although it is 
now gaining foothold in various college courses. Let 
us hope that the time will come when this rich ma- 
terial can be read and reverently read as literature. 
The eternal truths of religion would be in no sense 
endangered by this outcome. 

The Course in Literature. — The foregoing discus- 
sion of the material of reading has plainly indicated 
that the term Literature for this part of the work 
would be appropriate and unambiguous. This is 
what it really is, and the inclusion of it under reading 
is misleading. In many places, however, the designa- 
tion literature is limited to the high school. An addi- 
tional advantage of using the word would be to 
emphasize the fact that what children read is of the 
utmost importance, a fact now frequently overlooked. 
This is largely due, as will be shown in the next chap- 
ter, to the confusion between reading and oral ex- 
pression. 

Some simple work in the history of literature might 
be advantageously taken up in the elementary school, 
but it should always be subordinated to the essential 
aim, viz., literary enjoyment and appreciation. There 
is no doubt that it adds considerably to the interest 
of one's reading of, say, The Living Temple to know 



READING 57 

that Holmes had studied and practiced medicine. 
Again interesting events of George Eliot's life vivify 
the story of The Mill on the Floss. The historic back- 
ground of literature is also frequently illuminating 
if presented in a proper and unpedantic way. Reade 's 
It is Never too Late to Mend or Hood's Song of the 
Shirt are made more interesting and profitable by 
some such explanations. Some biographical data are 
contained in many of the excellent collections of prose 
and poetry known as Reading Books. These data are 
too frequently, however, mere dates and uninteresting, 
unrelated facts which throw no light on the literature 
as such. 



CHAPTER V 
ORAL EXPRESSION 

What it Means. — The term Oral Expression is open 
to the same criticism which applies to so many peda- 
gogical designations. It is both vague as the title of a 
definite curricular subject and includes ever so many 
phases of the teaching process. Every word that the 
pupil utters from an informal "Thank you, Ma'am" 
to a prolonged deliverance on "Arbitration" is in- 
cluded under Oral Expression, just as Reading runs 
the gamut from the study of a geography lesson to de- 
tailed work involving literary appreciation. In the 
main, and so far as possible, I shall restrict the desig- 
nation to every form of utterance on the part of the 
pupil where he consciously considers how he is ex- 
pressing himself as well as what he is saying. 

A Distinction. — The line of demarcation between 
Oral Expression and ordinary class room work or reci- 
tation is exceedingly fine and difficult of determina- 
tion. Yet for practical purposes the line should fre- 
quently be drawn. We sometimes hear it said that 
every recitation should be at the same time a lesson 
in language. This is one of those extreme statements 
which are the bane of theoretic pedagogy. In one 
sense it is true, but the determination of the question 

58 



ORAL EXPRESSION 59 

is in the last analysis a matter of emphasis. If the 
purpose of a teacher's question is merely to test geo- 
graphic knowledge, the answer to "What is the 
capital of England ? ' ' may very well be simply : ' ' Lon- 
don." This is all that is necessary from the stand- 
point of geographic emphasis. If the purpose of the 
question is to give the pupil practice at the same time 
in complete sentence construction, the teacher should 
demand something like : ' ' The capital of England is 
London." This is a better answer from the stand- 
point of language emphasis. At times, perhaps fre- 
quently, the two ends may be secured. It is, however, 
a mistake to distract the pupils' attention from the 
main issue. Moreover, colloquial or conversational 
language does not habitually use the complete state- 
ment, and a universal insistence on the latter is not 
only distracting, but may easily give rise to a stilted 
and unnatural form of speech. "On the shelf" is an 
adequate and thoroughly idiomatic response to the 
question: "Where is the book?" Of course, incor- 
rectness of speech must not be tolerated. "Because I 
seen them" is an absolutely unallowable answer to 
1 ' How do you know there are snow crystals ? ' ' Even 
here, however, the correction should be made with the 
least possible interruption of the main issue. It 
would probably be an inappropriate time for a dis- 
sertation on the distinction between the participle and 
preterit. The prevalent errors of speech in the class 
room form valuable material for subsequent corrective 
work in pronunciation, grammar, and rhetoric. 

The Value of Oral Expression. — As a specific subject 



60 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

of the curriculum, too much stress can scarcely be laid 
upon oral expression. We all talk ever so much more 
than we write. Self confidence and readiness in 
speech are a valuable asset for any man or woman. 
The ability to read aloud clearly and entertainingly is 
a possession whose happiness value can scarcely be 
over-estimated. Many of the asperities and disson- 
ances of life would be eliminated if we could all say 
what we mean unambiguously, forcefully, and pleas- 
antly. In the opinion of the author, one solution of 
the omnipresent servant problem would be found in a 
careful course in Oral Expression for mistresses. Am- 
biguous orders, interpreted by an uneducated judg- 
ment, with the resultant scolding are responsible for 
many a "week's notice." Socially, the good conver- 
sationalist and raconteur has tremendous advantage 
over the diffident or awkward talker. Besides all this, 
formal training in addressing groups of persons is of 
great value in connection with our present social ar- 
rangements. Most educated men and women belong 
to clubs or societies — political, religious, athletic, so- 
cial — membership in which brings with it the neces- 
sity or desirability of standing on one's feet and hav- 
ing one's say. Whether it be a felicitous speech of 
compliment at a wedding feast or a political harangue 
on the floor of Congress, how one talks is frequently as 
important as what one says. The public schools have 
been derelict in this matter of oral expression, but 
there is now evident a growing appreciation of its 
value. It has already won a place as a separate sub- 
ject in the curricula of many school systems. 



ORAL EXPRESSION 61 

Oral Expression and Primary Reading. — In the last 
chapter, the emphasis in the teaching of reading was 
laid on the necessity of getting the thought. It was 
insisted that a distinction should be made between 
thought getting and thought expressing. The three- 
fold character of Reading as the term is often vaguely 
used may profitably be repeated: (a) getting the au- 
thor's thought (accomplished usually by silent read- 
ing and study), (b) what thoughts we are getting 
(the material of reading — better called Literature) 
and (c) expressing the author's thought (reading 
aloud, one phase of oral expression). 

In the very beginning of his work, the child must 
read aloud, so that here reading and oral expression 
merge into one. The purpose, however, is test. It 
is necessitated by the mastery of the mechanics of 
the reading operation. Moreover, since, as we saw, 
the association between the visual symbol and the 
spoken word is the important consideration, the lat- 
ter must be largely in evidence in the early part of 
the work. This necessity of oral reading in the very 
beginning of the course has been responsible for one 
of the silliest and most wasteful processes of the 
class room. It has tended to the continuation of the 
practice even after the mechanics of the reading 
operation was thoroughly mastered, and has resulted 
in a fatal vagueness of aim. The so-called reading les- 
son in the higher grades of many schools is nothing 
more than a farce. There is a tacit recognition of 
this fact in the arrangement of the program bringing 
the reading lesson at the end of the afternoon, when 



62 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

teacher and pupils are half asleep anyway. All the 
children, bright and dull, have copies of the same 
book, one reads aloud and the others are supposed to 
follow. Some commentary and explanations of words 
by the teacher now and then rouse the listless listen- 
ers (the reader's attention is called to the fact that 
"listless" may be taken as a pun) to some attitude 
akin to attention. This description may seem ex- 
aggerated and the writer hopes that it is. It shall 
stay as written, however, because painful reminis- 
cences of many dull school hours of my own experience 
are still lively in my recollection and I know well that 
despite advances in the science of pedagogy, there is 
no stronger hold on teachers than tradition. Thou- 
sands of teachers today are conducting their classes 
just as they themselves were taught as children. 

Reading Aloud as a Phase of Oral Expression. — Con- 
sidered strictly as a part of Oral Expression, reading 
aloud attains considerable importance. Oral reading 
must always presuppose that the thoughts to be read 
are already thoroughly understood by the pupil. Si- 
lent reading, study, and needed explanations must 
precede the attempt to read aloud. The other mem- 
bers of the class form the audience, and the point of 
view must be that the pupil doing the reading is 
obligated to make them understand and appreciate 
what he reads. They should not look at their books 
while the reading is in progress, but their books 
should be either closed or face downward on their 
desks. They should look at the reader, who should, as 
a rule, stand at the front of the room facing his au- 



ORAL EXPRESSION 63 

dience. His position should be natural and easy, the 
weight of his body preferably on one foot at a time. 
He should stand erect and in a hygienic attitude ; his 
left hand holding the book and his right hanging at 
his side — not in his pocket. These points should be 
insisted upon in the beginning of the work, so that 
they may become practically second nature. Affec- 
tation should not be tolerated, but we must remember 
that for some people even a bath is affectation. So 
rather a forced or stilted attitude than one that is 
stoop-shouldered and slouchy. 

Imagination in Reading. — It is often said that read- 
ing trains the imagination. How we shall interpret 
this statement can be guessed from our treatment of 
Formal Discipline in the first chapter of this book. 
Reading does train the imagination, particularly read- 
ing aloud, if we understand by this that it affords 
brilliant opportunities for the creation of an ideal of 
imagery. The necessary relation between imagina- 
tion and comprehension is an integral part of the 
process of teaching reading. In the preliminary work 
or stage of preparation, the teacher should insist on 
the pupils forming an image, a picture. She may as- 
sist frequently by vivid description or objectively by 
showing the actual things with which the passage deals 
or by blackboard illustration. Some may object that 
this is perceptive rather than imaginative work, but 
we must not forget that imagery is intensified by such 
objective helps if they are not carried to an extreme. 
Searching questions must follow this preparatory 
work, so as to be sure that the entire class or section 



64 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

actually has the required images. This should con- 
stitute the principal step of preparation for oral read- 
ing. 

Conveying the Imagery to the Audience. — Practi- 
cally the only excuse for oral reading when its use as 
a test of thought getting is no longer necessary, is to 
express the author's words so that others may get the 
thought. Other elements of oral reading will be dis- 
cussed later. Here we will restrict ourselves to the 
one consideration : How must the pupil read aloud 
so that the audience can readily and with a minimum 
of effort get the ideas of the author? First, we will 
repeat, the reader must clearly image the ideas him- 
self. Then he must ask "How shall I give these to 
my listeners?" He should be made to comprehend 
the fundamental principle of all reading or, in fact, 
every expressive art, that some elements are important, 
salient, while others are secondary or subordinate. 
Many words of the passage form a mere setting for the 
prominent ideas. Indeed it is possible to omit many 
words from an ordinary paragraph and still leave the 
meaning fairly intact. The decision as to which are 
and which are not the prominent ideas forms an inter- 
esting and valuable part of the reading lesson. An 
illustration will make this clearer : Take, for example, 
the first lines of Longfellow's Skeleton in Armor: 

Speak, speak, thou fearful guest, 
Who with thy hollow breast 
Still in rude armor drest 

Comest to daunt me! 
Wrapped not in Eastern balms, 



ORAL EXPRESSION 65 

But with thy fleshless palms 
Stretched as if asking alms, 
Why dost thou haunt me! 

Then from those cavernous eyes 
Pale flashes seemed to rise — etc. 

The teacher's preparation for the reading of this 
poem would include certainly an account of the events 
— the finding of the armored skeleton — which the poet 
himself explains in a note. Some interesting recital 
of the exploits of the Norsemen and of their manners 
and customs would also be illuminating and there 
would be afforded a splendid opportunity for correla- 
tion with the history of American discoveries. The 
reference to "Eastern balms" would probably have 
to be explained by the teacher as would some other 
words and phrases of the poem. 

The question now arises in considering the oral read- 
ing of the lines above quoted : What is the important 
picture which the audience must have placed before 
their mental vision? Evidently the rather odd and 
decidedly grewsome image of an unearthed armored 
skeleton. With this aim clearly in mind, what are the 
most important elements ? Obviously ' ' hollow breast, ' ' 
"fleshless palms," "cavernous eyes." These expres- 
sions, more than any other parts of the quotation, are 
salient factors in the mental image of the skeleton. 
' ' Rude armor drest ' ' is also important, but ' ' wrapped 
not in Eastern balms" is decidedly secondary and, if 
given undue prominence, may even become distracting. 
The vitally important emotional side of the imagery 



66 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

will be considered immediately after we have outlined 
the best way of giving the prominent factors promi- 
nence in our reading. 

Emphasis. — The important Avords or phrases, once 
selected, should be so uttered that they will naturally 
make a vivid impression on the minds of the audience. 
This is generally expressed by saying that they must 
be emphasized. There are innumerable ways of em- 
phasizing. Anything that attracts attention to a word 
constitutes emphasis. If the reader had a gong con- 
cealed on his person and would ring it at every im- 
portant word, it would tend to produce emphasis 
albeit with a measure of distraction. Some readers 
emphasize important points by facial contortions or 
grimaces. Roosevelt uses this method and, it must be 
admitted, rather effectively. It would scarcely do for 
the school room however. The most usual way to em- 
phasize a w 7 ord is to utter it more loudly than its 
fellows. Such added force will naturally attract the 
listeners' attention. But so would any pronounced 
difference in utterance. In fact, saying one word very 
softly, almost whispering, may produce the same effect. 
Similarly, gestures may give emphasis as well as in- 
terpretation to a passage. Non-vocal methods are 
perhaps more appropriate to speaking than to read- 
ing and they will be considered later in that connec- 
tion. 

What is probably the most effective way of empha- 
sizing remains to be considered, viz., the pause. It 
is the author 's opinion, based on considerable observa- 
tion, that the intelligent use of the pause is the prin- 



ORAL EXPRESSION 67 

cipal distinguishing mark of the good reader. The 
ordinary untrained grammar school pupil pauses only 
when he is out of breath. Psychologically the pause 
gives to the word which follows it all the vividness 
resulting from a state of expectant attention. The 
longer the pause — within reason, of course — the 
stronger the emphasis. This emphasis may be further 
intensified by a change of tone — loudness, softness, 
pitch, timbre — on the important word. The pause 
alone, is, however, usually ample. Care must be taken 
that the pupil does not drop his voice on the word 
preceding the pause, as an unnatural, staccato effect 
is thereby produced, which will be apt to defeat the 
end in view. The pause, as a means of emphasis, has 
the additional advantage that it may serve to bring 
out not only single words but entire clauses and sen- 
tences. It should be insisted on from the beginning 
of expressive oral reading, so that its constant con- 
scious use may become second nature to the pupil. 
Let any one take the poetical lines cited above and 
make pauses before the phrases selected as important, 
and he cannot fail to notice the heightening of the ef- 
fect and the clarifying of the picture. I shall never 
forget the rendition of Antony's famous funeral ad- 
dress by the veteran actor John Lane. I, a youth of 
seventeen, was a supernumerary in the Roman mob 
whose feelings were being wrought upon. Particu- 
larly impressive were the lines: 

The evil that men do lives after them, 
The good is oft interred with their bones. 



68 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

The pauses before the words "evil" and "good" 
respectively were fully six seconds in duration. In 
both cases "the" was pronounced with the long e. 

A pause after an emphatic word or phrase is also 
helpful, as it tends to set it off clearly and distinctly. 
In fact, the pause is Janus headed, looking both ways. 
Not only does it focalize what follows it, but gives 
time for retrospective comprehension of what has pre- 
ceded it. The constant admonition "too fast, too 
fast!" will be remedied more effectually by the con- 
scious use of the pause than by any other way I know 
of. Let the pupil ever have before his mind the 
thought that he is painting mental pictures for his 
audience — an audience with their eyes on him, not on 
the text — and he will appreciate the necessity of 
slow, deliberate reading. More than this, as he learns 
to put himself in the place of the audience, and recol- 
lects some of his own dreary, bored experiences as 
listener, he will recognize the ethical obligation im- 
posed upon him to distinguish between the vital and 
the unessential by intelligent emphasis. 

Expression. — Emphasis is a large factor in what we 
call expressive reading, but it is not the only factor. 
Just as the musician interpreting a composition must 
regard other marks than piano, forte, and the pause, 
so the oral reader's imagination supplies him with 
maestoso 's dolce's, cantabile's, etc. The mental pic- 
ture contains more than mere perceptive elements. 
It has an emotional side as well. Frequently, a vivid 
imagination will unconsciously give to the reader's 
tone the requisite emotional suggestiveness. Whether 



ORAL EXPRESSION 69 

justly or not, teachers usually attribute lack of ex- 
pression to a lack of imagery. Generally speaking, 
this is true. According to the testimony of some 
actors, however, vivid imagination and strong feeling 
do not always conduce to deeper emotional effect upon 
an audience. And the reverse proposition has also 
been maintained. It is not, of course, the purpose 
of the school to develop a race of actors or dramatic 
elocutionists. Still the teacher of oral expression 
can learn much from that great educational institu- 
tion — the stage. 

Referring again to the poetical quotation above, the 
pupils should realize that the mental picture of the 
skeleton is not an ordinary sight, nor the state of 
mind which would lead one to ask it to "Speak! 
Speak ! " an every day experience. Lead them to see 
that the predominant emotion is horror. Get them 
to infuse some horror into their reading and if they 
succeed but poorly, do it for them. So with the 
various emotions which are of frequent occurrence in 
reading, such as love, surprise, hate, fear, envy, etc., 
etc. Expressive reading, therefore, contains two 
factors — first, the clear mental image, the intellectual 
factor, and second, conveying the appropriate feeling, 
the emotional factor. 

Enunciation. — I have discussed emphasis and ex- 
pression before clearness of utterance because they 
have the priority in importance even if not in time. 
Make your audience understand, force their attention 
are the watch words of all oral expression. This may 
seem to conflict with the natural conversational tone 



70 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

set up as an aim in many courses in reading. To a 
certain extent it does. So long as thought getting 
by the reader was regarded as the main purpose of 
oral reading, the conversational manner was suffi- 
cient. But when the aim is shifted from thought get- 
ting to thought giving and the audience is enlarged 
from one to fifty or a hundred, the easy, conversa- 
tional tone is not sufficiently convincing or interpreta- 
tive. The apparently easy, natural conversational 
tone is one of the last things learned in oral expres- 
sion, and is indicative of consummate art. Ars est 
artem celare. This applies with especial force to oral 
reading. The effect must be produced, but the effort 
should be inconspicuous or absent. Effective sugges- 
tive reading is a talent possessed by few. 

These considerations bring us to the important topic 
of clearness or enunciation. From the beginning, 
careless or slipshod enunciation must be guarded 
against. In reading to or addressing an audience of 
forty or more, there is demanded a clearness of ut- 
terance which would sound stilted or affected in ordi- 
nary conversation. The individual members of the 
audience are at various angles and distances from the 
reader, and there is not the same rapt attention char- 
acteristic of a tete a tete. Again, the larger the au- 
dience, the greater the difficulty of appealing to the 
individual interests. So, make sure that the vocaliza- 
tion is sufficiently loud and accurate. It is not a bad 
plan for the teacher to sit in the back of the room, so 
that the pupil may acquire the habit of throwing his 
voice to the most distant point. This also prevents 



ORAL EXPRESSION 71 

the nervous shifting of attitude caused by the teacher 
at her desk in the front of the room. No member of 
the audience, and the teacher is not the least impor- 
tant member, should be back of the speaker or reader. 

Specific exercises may be as helpful to clear enuncia- 
tion as are movement drills to penmanship. Class 
practice in carelessly uttered words like ghosts, kept, 
library, etc., serve to focalize attention on the 
necessity of giving the various vowels and consonants 
their full value. Some of these exercises may occa- 
sionally take the form of concert recitation. This 
should be regarded as an interesting variant to be 
used seldom and cautiously. Individual recitations 
are safer and more effective. Five minutes a day 
spent in such enunciation drills will be found to 
produce excellent results. 

A word of caution is perhaps necessary in regard to 
this insistence on clear enunciation. There arises a 
real danger of affectation and stiltedness which may 
produce a result too far removed from the utterances 
of ordinary conversation. In the author's experience, 
however, he does not recall many days or nights of 
worry on account of his pupils enunciating too clearly. 
Oral expression to an audience is not ordinary con- 
versation, and a grammar school pupil can readily be 
made to grasp the distinction. The trouble with much 
of the insufferable reading and declamation which 
holds back the hands of the clock at an otherwise en- 
joyable social function, is due to the failure to recog- 
nize the distinction between stressed and unstressed 
words. If due consideration is given to the princi- 



72 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

pies of emphasis discussed above, the unimportant 
parts of a passage will naturally lack the incisive- 
ness of enunciation which belongs to the emphatic 
expressions. Ordinary elocution drill often gives too 
much attention to the letter and too little to the spirit 
of the law. 

Pronunciation. — Enunciation and pronunciation are 
closely related. Carelessness in the former often leads 
to error in the latter. "Kep" for "kept" and "li- 
bry" for "library," "vilet" for "violet" are a few 
illustrations. Enunciation is a matter of care, pro- 
nunciation a matter of knowledge. This distinction 
leads us to the very difficult consideration of what we 
mean by correct pronunciation. 

As Sweet points out in his Primer of Phonetics, it 
seems foolish to argue as to how we should pronounce 
before we have scientifically ascertained how we do 
pronounce. From a philosophical standpoint, this 
statement is undoubtedly true. The practical teacher, 
however, cannot await the resolution of the abstruse 
problems of phonetics any more than the ordinary 
mortal can stop breathing until physiologists shall 
determine the exact nature of the mechanism of 
neuro-muscular control. Sweet's statement has, how- 
ever, an important bearing on spoken language, es- 
pecially as it directs attention to the fact that the 
same language is pronounced in different ways in 
different localities and even in the same locality, and 
even by the same individual at different times. There 
were many local differences of pronunciation long be- 
fore written language was invented or in general use. 



ORAL EXPRESSION 73 

Many of these differences have been handed down by 
tradition and thus perpetuated. Moreover, new dif- 
ferences are constantly arising, some explainable by 
phonetic laws, some undoubtedly due to changes of 
fashion, and some absolutely inexplicable. However 
caused, these differences do exist and the teacher of 
oral expression must recognize them. She should, 
though this is no easy matter, be able to distinguish 
between mere transient fads and permanent changes. 
Pope's lines are applicable: 

Be not the first by whom the new is tried 
Nor yet the last to lay the old aside. 

In fact, the teacher of oral expression will be forced 
to assume a conservative attitude toward pronuncia- 
tion. The main difficulty is not with words like per- 
emptory or sacrilegious, words rarely used by elemen- 
tary school pupils, but with that host of familiar 
words like on, past, taunt which are of every day oc- 
currence. Here she must, it seems to the author, 
remember the adage that "When in Rome, do as the 
Romans do." She must studiously observe and fa- 
miliarize herself with those forms of pronunciation 
used by the intelligent, cultured members of that com- 
munity where she resides. It would be the silliest 
waste of time conceivable in Philadelphia, e. g., to in- 
sist on the pupils using the broad or Italian a in words 
like class, past, etc. A negative attitude toward vul- 
gar or low pronunciations is perhaps the most ef- 
fectual course. She should, however, by constant ex- 
ample, emphasize what she considers the proper 



74 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

pronunciation. The long u of words like duty, the 
short o of on, song, etc., and the short a of man, stamp, 
etc., should be taught positively and insisted upon at 
all times. 1 

The habit of referring to the dictionary for the 
pronunciation of doubtful or unfamiliar words will 
be found most beneficial. A dictionary should be at 
each pupil's desk during the oral reading lesson. In 
this way, a pronunciation conscience can be created. 
Since the purpose of all oral expression is to render 
the understanding of what is said as easy as possible, 
it is obvious that any pronunciations which distract 
the listener's attention from the thought are to be 
studiously avoided. This does not mean, however, 
the sacrifice of accuracy, but rather the use of com- 
mon, usual pronunciations when several different 
forms are authorized. The intelligent use of a dic- 
tionary, presupposes, of course, a working knowledge 
of the various diacritical marks. This knowledge may 
commence in the fifth school year. No pupil should 
quit the elementary school without being able to as- 
certain the pronunciation of a word through the aid 
of some standard dictionary. The author has met 
many high school graduates who are deficient or al- 
together lacking in this ability. In English, accentua- 
tion presents considerable difficulty. Foreigners find 
this aspect of our language particularly troublesome. 
Pupils should be drilled in pronouncing words ac- 
cording to their accentuation. Secondary, as well as 

i The author, in citing these illustrations, being a Phila- 
delphian, is doing as the Romans do. 



ORAL EXPRESSION 75 

primary accent, must be taught. It will be found an 
interesting exercise to have pupils pronounce words 
accenting each syllable in turn. E. g., after the pu- 
pils have determined the primary accent of the word 
"revolution," let them pronounce it accenting the 
first syllable, then the second, and the last. The odd- 
ness of the resulting words will intensify the correct 
pronunciation and emphasize the importance of cor- 
rect accentuation. 

Foreign Words — German, French, Latin particu- 
larly — sometimes occur in English works. The 
teacher should prepare for these in advance and give 
her pupils as nearly an accurate pronunciation as 
she can. The conversational value of ability to pro- 
nounce these languages is greater than it first ap- 
pears. I have known of cases where the social pres- 
tige of an individual was almost destroyed by 
inaccurate pronunciation of words as frequently used 
as ennui, tete a tete, and auf wiedersehen. 

Declamation. — I employ this old fashioned word as 
a fitting designation for the recitation of memorized 
selections of prose or poetry. All that has been said 
about oral reading applies with equal force to declama- 
tion. As a rule, an audience expects more from a de- 
claimer as the mere fact of memorization implies some 
degree of studious consideration. Again, the de- 
claimer is able to face his audience all the time. The 
absence of the distracting printed page should make it 
easier to hold their attention. 

The teacher's manner is very important in this 
work, as it is in all forms of artistic expression. 



76 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

Eidicule and sarcasm — dangerous weapons at all 
times — are absolutely out of place here. A certain 
degree of timidity, made increasingly evident by the 
boy's swaggering bravado, is natural to adolescence. 
Riveting the attention of the class upon the specific 
aims of expression and enunciation produces a whole- 
some atmosphere for the work. As a rule, the pas- 
sage selected for declamation should be short and 
worthy of memorization. Good opportunities are of- 
fered here for correlation with history and other 
school subjects, as well as with literature. 

The problem of bodily attitude in all forms of oral 
expression except reading is further complicated by 
an additional hand. Self-consciousness and timidity 
exhibit their most persistent symptoms in the lack of 
control of the extremities. Certain books on elocu- 
tion prescribe exact regulations for the position of the 
entire body. It would be helpful for the pupil to 
know some of the best of these regulations. Insist- 
ence upon them, however, may easily prove fatal to 
case and naturalness. Healthful position of the body 
should be demanded at all times. Grace is an after 
consideration but an important one. Praise the pupil 
for the good points of his bodily position, thus giving 
them emphasis for the entire class. Positively pro- 
hibit slouchiness, hands in pockets, projecting abdo- 
men, straddled feet, etc. Make the pupils understand 
that an important factor in securing attention con- 
sists in the speaker's attitude. If he himself is not 
interested in what he is saying, how can he reasonably 
expect to arouse interest in his audience? Attacking 



ORAL EXPRESSION 77 

the problem in this way, the teacher can work up to 
good bodily attitudes without the otherwise grave 
danger of crushing out spontaneity. The pupil stand- 
ing before his classmates in declamation is also apt to 
regard himself as an occasional cynosure for this 
limited but critical public. Tactfully managed, this 
opportunity may be turned to good account in creating 
habits of cleanliness and neatness of dress. When the 
pupil has finished his recitation, but not before, the 
teacher should lead the class in a good natured but 
strictly critical discussion of its good points and de- 
fects. The declaimer himself should be given the first 
opportunity in the discussion to correct his faults. 

Gesture. — As was pointed out above, in discussing 
emphasis, movements of the hands or in fact of any 
part of the body, or of the entire body, are justified 
when they are necessary to explain or emphasize some 
word or expression. Pointing up while saying the 
word "above" accentuates the aboveness. Raising 
the eyebrows for the word "supercilious" and curling 
the lip for "scornful," illustrate what I mean. Here 
again the reader or reciter whose imagery is clear and 
vivid is apt to make some partially appropriate ges- 
ture. Here, as with expressive emotional reading, 
there is much to be taught, or better, inspiringly shown 
by the teacher. It is safe to lay down as a rule for 
most beginners: The fewer arm movements, the bet- 
ter. Stilted, affected results must be guarded against. 
Just as a musician injects his personality into his 
rendition of a symphony, so should the reader or de- 
claimer in his interpretation of a literary passage. 



78 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

We should expect more facial mobility and gesticula- 
tion from an Italian or Frenchman than from an 
Englishman or American. Their absence in the for- 
mer would be as conspicuous an affectation as would 
be their excessive use by the latter. A rather nega- 
tive attitude toward gesture in the form of large bodily 
movements is perhaps safest in the elementary school 
at least. Encourage such gestures as seem to spring 
from the personality of the reciter but do not insist 
on them in any case. 

Public Speaking. — This is a rather high sounding 
title for the kind of work which can be attempted in 
the elementary school. It will seem a more reason- 
able designation if I define "public" to mean any 
group of listeners from ten interested kindegarten tots 
to an assembly of a thousand grammar school pupils. 
Public speaking becomes a form of declamation when 
the speaker memorizes his story, talk, or speech before 
delivering it. Some work of this character may profit- 
ably be attempted in the grammar school, most use- 
fully perhaps in connection with written language, 
which will be considered in a later chapter. Here I 
restrict public speaking, for convenience of treatment, 
to the recital of topics — literary or scientific — of which 
the pupil has sufficient knowledge, but whose verbal 
formulation he first attempts in oral form. Grammar 
and rhetoric of a simple character find a rich concrete 
application here in addition to the purely oral aspect 
of the exercise. In oral reading and declamation, 
grammar and rhetoric are presupposed possessions of 
the author — not so with public speaking. The first 



ORAL EXPRESSION 79 

grade pupil's "It was him" in the course of his re- 
cital of some narrative or personal experience must 
be rigidly changed to "It was he." Similarly, with 
more mature pupils, the rhetorical principles of em- 
phasis, unity, and coherence must be strictly insisted 
upon. In fact, concrete training in grammar and 
rhetoric forms an exceedingly important value of pub- 
lic speaking. Class criticism and discussion of such 
errors as they occur is far better training than the 
usual method of individual corrections of written 
themes. And this is the appropriate place for such 
corrections, and for insistence on the complete state- 
ment. Here it is not interruptive, as it might be in 
the arithmetic or geography lesson, but is in fact 
the very point of the exercise. 

The fundamental principles of description, narra- 
tion, and exposition are also best taught in connection 
with these oral exercises. It is helpful sometimes to 
furnish the class with a bare outline of some narra- 
tive, then after giving them some time for thoughtful 
preparation, call upon as many individual pupils as 
possible to recite. With older pupils, topics related 
to the curricular subjects may be assigned for home 
or library preparation. Sketches of the important 
facts may be written and the oral exercise conducted 
during a regular school period. Valuable methods of 
using periodicals, newspapers, and reference works can 
be developed, which will be interesting as well as 
educative in a broad sense. A good school library is 
invaluable in connection with this work. 

Vocabulary Building. — Word study has as impor- 



80 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

tant a bearing upon oral as upon written language. 
The course in public speaking will tend to enlarge the 
pupil's vocabulary. The important relation between 
language and conception has been briefly hinted at in 
the chapter on Psychology. Every new word learned 
means so much additional mental organization. The 
child who can say "charity" instead of some circum- 
locution like "helping the poor and needy" can not 
only express himself more felicitously, but has also 
acquired the power of thinking more economically. 
"When I substituted the word "chalk" for my two 
year old daughter's "the white stuff that you write 
with, ' ' I gave her a new mental tool. In a sense, I ac- 
complished for her mental organization what Eli 
Whitney did for the production of cotton. New 
words really comprehended and made our own are like 
so much labor saving machinery. At the close of a 
pupil's recitation the teacher will frequently be able 
to suggest some shorter more felicitous way of express- 
ing a certain thought. She may supply a word of 
which the pupil already has recognition knowledge, or 
she may deem it advisable to make an absolutely new 
addition to the vocabulary of the class. 

The author has found it an interesting and help- 
ful plan in his oral expression work to classify words 
into three groups — old friends, acquaintances, and 
strangers. By old friends he indicates that large 
group of everyday words like "house," "go," 
"water," etc., of which all the pupils have both recog- 
nition and working knowledge. By acquaintances he 
means those words of which the pupils have only 



ORAL EXPRESSION 81 

recognition knowledge, i. e., words Avhich they easily 
understand when they hear or read them, but which 
they seldom or never use. Pupils will often find it 
extremely difficult to draw the line between old friends 
and acquaintances, but the attempt to do so is excel- 
lent language training. It makes them conscious of 
the limitations of their own working vocabularies, and 
leads them to a better and more exact use of words. 
It will be found quite interesting to have a class take 
a page or two of some literary work, and arrange the 
words in three columns, viz., old friends, acquain- 
tances, and doubtful. 

The strangers will be found more difficult to handle. 
In language, as in life, it is easier to convert acquaint- 
ances into friends than to perform the same office 
with strangers. As was stated in a previous chapter, 
in the early grades, most if not all new words should 
be used at first orally. Subsequently writing the new 
words helps to focalize the attention. Using the word 
in varying contexts is the method psychology plainly 
indicates for the formation of the concept. Many of 
the technical terms of geography, arithmetic, gram- 
mar, etc., are used so frequently that they soon gain 
familiarity. This is not the case, however, with nu- 
merous words of literature. Here it inevitably occurs 
that frequently the first contact with the new word 
will be visual, not auditory. Some explanation will 
be found necessary by the teacher, and she cannot al- 
ways depend upon frequency or repetition to make 
the word an acquaintance, far less an old friend. 
Mental organization of the new word and vividness 



82 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

of impression are therefore absolutely essential. An 
exceedingly valuable form of such mental organiza- 
tion is often provided by an etymological considera- 
tion of the word. This will also be of assistance in 
its spelling as we shall see in the next chapter. 

The author has found it helpful in his work with 
high school classes to require the pupils to record in 
a special notebook, kept solely for the purpose, all 
new words which occurred in their reading or study, 
together with their meanings and the date on which 
they were met. Periodical examination of these note 
'books and quizzes on the meanings of the words con- 
stituted the very necessary follow-up work. The re- 
quirement of the date was a whim of the author, who 
thought that it would add interest to the work, mak- 
ing the books, as it were, a kind of mental diary or 
journal of the pupil's intellectual development, a 
journal whose perusal might be interesting in future 
years. Such a plan might be used with good results 
in the higher grammar grades. 



CHAPTER VI 

SPELLING 

Its Value. — So far as conventional value is con- 
cerned, a knowledge of spelling is not so important 
as the ability to pronounce correctly and speak gram- 
matically. This statement may seem strange to the 
old time school masters, but a little reflection will show 
it to be true. In the first place we speak so much 
more than we write, that the quantitative argument 
becomes overwhelming. Again, we must recognize the 
fact that there are constitutionally poor spellers, 
whose culture and general intelligence are of the high- 
est grade. They either hire clerks or amanuenses to 
write at their dictation or else have somebody, part 
of whose stock in trade is ability to spell, rewrite 
their manuscripts. In speaking, however, whether 
formally or informally, errors in grammar and pro- 
nunciation are interpreted, and often justly, as in- 
dications of lack of education and culture. On the 
other hand there are not the same local variations in 
written as in spoken language. The differences be- 
tween England and America are so slight as to be neg- 
ligible. In consequence of this universal standard, 
there is no loophole of excuse for bad spelling. We 
cannot extenuate by saying ' ' Oh well, he 's from Vir- 

83 



84 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

ginia or from Maine." And there are many who 
must know how to spell in connection with their fu- 
ture vocations. For these, spelling has an especial 
utilitarian value, while for all of us its value is largely 
conventional. 

Difficulties of English Spelling. — Were English a 
phonetic language, as German practically is, the teach- 
ing of spelling would present no special difficulty. 
There would be a limited number of letters or letter 
combinations always representing the same sound, and 
mistakes would occur only as the result of absolute 
carelessness. The amount of time necessarily spent 
in the teaching of English spelling handicaps us 
greatly in educational competition with nations blessed 
with simpler or more nearly phonetic languages. 
The time we must spend on spelling can be devoted in 
German schools, for instance, to various really useful 
acquisitions. I believe that Germany's preeminence 
in education is largely due to the phonetic character 
of the German language. 

To any casual student of history, the reason for the 
horrible condition of modern English spelling is plain. 
Starting as a comparatively pure dialect of West Teu- 
tonic — Anglo Saxon — it was beaten down, and then 
stirred into a hybrid broth by the invasion of the 
Norman French. There were, besides, other less im- 
portant influences. This is not the place to dwell op- 
timistically on the grand results of this mixture in 
creating the richest and most flexible of modern lan- 
guages. So far as spelling is concerned, the stand- 
point is necessarily pessimistic. Modern English 



SPELLING 85 

spelling may be defined as the attempt to indicate 
by the French values of Chaucerian letters the cur- 
rent pronunciations of that distant age. While pro- 
nunciations have changed tremendously — in Chau- 
cer's time, there was not a single silent letter in 
the word knight — spelling has remained practically 
the same. Various attempts at reformed spelling have 
been made and the author wishes them God speed. 
They must of course be conservative and gradual, so 
that English spelling will doubtless be a difficult, time- 
consuming branch of the curriculum for years to come. 

A Distinction. — We may, for convenience of treat- 
ment, divide English words or syllables into two 
classes, which for want of better names I shall call 
rational and arbitrary. I consider those words or 
parts of words rational whose spelling can be judged 
from the usual phonetic value of the letter combina- 
tions. For example, the word man is a rational or 
phonetic English word; so is the syllable ful in its 
various combinations, so the word humdrum, etc., etc. 
There is probably not a word but has some rational 
element, even phlegm has its I and e and m. Word 
spelling will also be considered rational if the pupil 
can deduce it from its derivation. 

The use of the word "arbitrary" for the second 
group of words is somewhat misleading, but I can 
think of no better designation. For instance, al- 
though a word like hymn belongs to the arbitrary 
group, there is of course a definite reason for its ex- 
act spelling. If the historic reason for the word is 
too far to seek, or too obscure, or unknown to the 



86 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

teacher — few elementary teachers are or can be ex- 
pected to be philologists — the word must be taught as 
a word, much as a Chinese symbol stands for its idea. 
In the sense that every existent thing has a definite 
though not always known cause for its existence, noth- 
ing is arbitrary. Whether to regard certain words as 
rational (in this broader historic sense) or arbitrary 
is often a nice point for the teacher to determine. 

Rational Spelling. — As was indicated in the pre- 
ceding paragraph, some words are entirely rational, 
while practically all words have rational elements. 
The only difficulty here is that there are so many ar- 
bitrary elements of words, that the child must remem- 
ber which are rational as well as which are arbitrary. 
Him, hymn, limb, are a group of words illustrating a 
fairly prevalent condition. The arbitrarization — if I 
may coin the word — of him into himb would be as 
likely as the rationalization of limb into Urn. 

The early teaching of spelling in the lowest grades 
should be largely rational and inductive. Grouping 
of words containing the same phonetic elements assists 
the formation of permanent associations. For ex- 
ample, light, might, fright, tight, etc., frequently seen 
together naturally lead to the generalization of the 
sound value of ight, so that when this sound is heard 
the letter forms i-g-h-t will be suggested to the child's 
mind. The same sound might also suggest the letters 
i-t-e. Two or even more than two associations or 
generalizations do not destroy the intrinsic value of 
the rational method of procedure. Left to himself, 
the child will unconsciously generalize, and it is cer- 



SPELLING 87 

tainly best that the teacher so arrange her instruc- 
tion that those generalizations be made which will 
prove most helpful. The fact that a child may occa- 
sionally spell kite, kight, is no argument against the 
efficacy of this method of teaching. While English 
spelling remains as it is today, any method which will 
prevent all mistakes will undoubtedly herald the ap- 
proach of the millennium. 

Just as the test of thought getting necessitated oral 
reading in the beginning of the work, so the well es- 
tablished read- write method implies that the child shall 
be able to write and hence to spell what he reads. 
Although this is true of the first part of the work, it 
should not be carried too far. There are many words 
which the young child should be able to read without 
necessarily being required to remember their spelling. 
For example, a first or second grade child in Phila- 
delphia should be able to recognize such words as 
Schuylkill, Delaware, Independence Hall. They are 
probably too difficult to require that their spelling 
should be remembered by the very young pupils. 
When they occur in their little written exercises, it 
would be a good plan for the teacher to write these 
words plainly upon the blackboard, so that the pupils 
would simply have to copy them. The spelling of 
many absurdly difficult words is required of little 
tots to the just irritation of pupils and parents alike. 
Later, of course, the spelling of many of these local 
geographical and historical words must be known by 
the pupils, but then they will be older and better able 
to learn them. 



88 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

Word Derivation. — In the previous chapter, I have 
indicated the importance of etymology as an associa- 
tive peg for word meanings. It also is of great value 
in connection with spelling. A word is rationalized 
by any bit of knowledge which enables the pupil to 
reason out its spelling. Not only is mental organiza- 
tion secured but an otherwise dull subject can in this 
way be made delightfully interesting. 

An acquaintance with the principal prefixes and suf- 
fixes will be found of great assistance. When, for 
instance, the prefix dis is shown as an integral part 
of disease, disappear, disappoint, etc., an interesting 
association is formed and a useful generalization is 
supplied. There is far less danger of a child thus 
taught misspelling disappear as dissapear than there 
would be had he no insight into the derivation of the 
word. So business seen in its suffix aspect as merely 
ness added to busy and grouped with happy, happi- 
ness, clumsy, clumsiness, etc., is far less apt to be for- 
gotten. Historic associations are also valuable. The 
child who knows that the Philippines were named after 
King Philip will probably be relieved from his doubts 
as to whether the word has two I's or two p's. The 
history of the absurdly wrong spelling "rhyme," 
which nevertheless we use, will serve to impress the 
three words rhyme, rime, and rhythm. Such methods 
are, of course, only helps, not panaceas. There is no 
panacea for the ills attendant on our present s} r s- 
tem of English spelling. I make this remark because 
of the foolish propensity of some educational critics 



SPELLING 89. 

to condemn a method absolutely because it will not 
cure everything and apply everywhere. 

This method of enlivening and rationalizing the 
spelling lesson is so valuable, that the author ventures 
to assert that every teacher should become a philolo- 
gist at least to the extent of thinking about and look- 
ing up a word derivation whenever possible. 

Rules of Spelling. — Out of numerous attempts to 
bring order and system into our inchoate spelling, 
there have resulted some helpful generalizations. 
These are often referred to as rules of spelling. It 
is needless to say that these rules have by no means 
the validity or universality of application of the laws 
of physical science. It is, however, silly to argue that 
a rule is worthless simply because it has exceptions. 
Even were there as many exceptions as applications, 
the generalization would still be of use as grouping 
together for the mind a number of words of similar 
literal construction. Indeed the fact that a word is 
regarded as an exception to a rule intensifies its ac- 
quisition, giving an additional associative bond 
through the force of contrast. The rules of spelling 
should be taught not earlier perhaps than the sixth 
school year, by which time the pupil has a broad and 
solid basis for his inductions. And these rules should 
be, so far as possible, inductively attained through the 
pupils' self-activity, discreetly guided by the teacher. 

The generalizations which the author has found 
most helpful are as follows: changing the y into ie in 
the formation of plurals, as lady, ladies; changing 



90 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

final y preceded by a consonant, into i on the addition 
of a suffix beginning with a consonant, as, happy, hap- 
piness; dropping final e on the addition of an initially 
vowel suffix, as, dance, dancing; retaining the e when 
the suffix begins with a, o, or u, as, changeable; using 
the diphthong ie, pronounced ee, after all letters but 
c when it becomes ei, as friend, ceiling; using the diph- 
thong ei when pronounced a, as weight, reign; doub- 
ling the final single consonant of a monosyllabic or 
ultimately accented word upon taking a suffix begin- 
ning with a vowel, as, hat, hatter. The disfavor with 
which these rules are regarded in many quarters is 
probably due to the fact that they are badly taught, 
often too hurriedly, the pupils not being allowed to 
make their own generalizations. Properly taught, 
they are to be heartily recommended as an efficacious 
means of rationalizing English spelling. Many an in- 
trinsically educative subject has been dropped from the 
curriculum because of faulty methods of instruction. 
Etymology has met this fate in many school systems. 

After the generalizations have been properly made 
and thoroughly understood, a simple working of the 
rules could profitably be committed to memory. Some 
easy mnemonic devices are justifiable in fixing such a 
rule as that for ei, for instance, although this ceases 
to be a rational method in the limited sense in which 
I am employing the word rational. 

Arbitrary Spelling. — It will be recalled that I use the 
designation arbitrary for words the reason for whose 
peculiarity of spelling is too far removed or otherwise 
unprofitable to seek. The ai of Britain, the ei of 



SPELLING 91 

neither are examples. With such words, reliance 
must be placed upon the laws of mental life governing 
association. What these laws are has been roughly 
outlined in the chapter on Psychology. Here it will 
suffice to refer to the importance of frequency of repe- 
tition and intensity — secured through interest — and 
the varieties of imagery which characterize different 
individuals. 

From time immemorial teachers of spelling have re- 
lied upon drill, and so long as much of our spelling 
remains arbitrary, will thoroughness of drill be neces- 
sary. The recognition of this undoubted truth must 
not make us oblivious to the fact that mere repetition 
easily becomes a dull, monotonous grind. This may 
be minimized by varying the nature of the recitation, 
which will be discussed later. 

Intensity of association through interest can be se- 
cured in various ways. Limiting the lesson to a very 
few difficult words is an excellent practice, but one 
that our tradition bound teaching uses far too seldom. 
Talking about the spelling of a word, relating it to 
similarly spelt words, contrasting it with others, dwell- 
ing on its difficulties or peculiarities, all tend to form 
some network of association, to substitute a degree of 
mental organization for a single slender connective 
thread. The play of humor may at times be invoked 
to good effect. Regarding certain puzzling words as 
class jokes and their misspelling as honestly laugh- 
able is an interesting variant which the author has 
often used successfully. In short, intensity of ac- 
quisition will be the normal outcome of good teach,- 



92 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

ing. In the past, the mere assigning of lists of words 
for study and their subsequent test and correction has 
often been the sum total of so-called teaching. Two 
essential facts of the teaching process, preparation and 
instruction, have too frequently been wholly neglected. 
A considerable quantity of experimental investiga- 
tion has proved beyond a doubt great individual dif- 
ferences in types of imagery. The motor, visual, and 
auditory seem to be, in the order named, the most prev- 
alent forms. In the teaching of the arbitrary words 
particularly, this psychological fact assumes much im- 
portance. It is obvious that a pupil who habitually 
visualizes will remember the words better the oftener 
he sees them. He will also be able to test the correct- 
ness of the written word by looking at it. A pupil 
of the auditory type, on the other hand, will retain 
the spelling best by saying over frequently the letters 
forming the words. When he deliberates about a 
word, he will tend to image the letter names as sounds. 
The extent to which movements of articulation enter 
this process merges it into the motor type with which 
it is often associated. Movements of the hand and 
fingers in writing are the main factors of motor 
imagery. Such pupils will probably best retain the 
spelling of words by writing them. Their own test of 
correctness will consist in the felt appropriateness of 
the motor feelings in writing the words. Children 
are, as a rule, good visualizers. The wise teacher will, 
however, make an appeal to all three types of imagery. 
Her spelling class should become a kind of psycho- 



SPELLING 93 

logical laboratory. A conspicuous form of imagery 
in any pupil should receive specific treatment. Sug- 
gestions for methods of study could naturally follow 
such discoveries to the great benefit of the pupil. It 
might even be practicable to divide the spelling class 
into sections based upon typical differences in imagery. 
In stating the fundamental law of association in 
Chapter II mention was made of the importance of the 
resultant pleasantness or unpleasantness. This factor 
assumes greater weight in all associations where in- 
trinsic organization is difficult or impracticable. Ar- 
bitrary spelling is a case in point. There is a natural 
interest inherent in the detection of similarities, con- 
trasts, and inductive generalizations. The formal, un- 
reasoning memorization of a number of letters in a 
certain order is a far different matter. Commenda- 
tion from the teacher, even little prizes for young 
children, emulation, wisely used, form justifiable 
means. An occasional spelling bee also adds interest 
either through the love of contrast, the desire to win, 
or curiosity to see who will be the victor. The inhibi- 
tive factor, punishment, is more difficult to handle. 
The writing of a word a large number of times is a 
method to be severely condemned. The argument 
against it is one which applies to the assignment of 
any additional school work as punishment, viz., that 
it engenders an attitude of disgust towards study and 
learning. The teacher practically says to the pupil: 
school work forms a good means of punishment as it 
is intrinsically disagreeable. Good natured ridicule 



94 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

is sometimes an effective corrective method, but it 
must be used carefully as it easily degenerates into 
sarcasm, than which nothing is more reprehensible. 

Syllabification. — The correct division of a word into 
syllables is a somewhat difficult part of spelling in- 
struction. It is a necessary part, however, as the im- 
proper division of a word at the end of a line, though 
not rendering the word unintelligible, certainly de- 
tracts from the writer's reputation for intelligence 
or culture. The conventional value of syllabification 
is as great as that of spelling itself. A prominent 
cause of the difficulty is one that applies to other sub- 
jects as well, viz., ignorance on the part of the teacher. 
It is necessary to remember that pronunciation, not 
etymology, is the determining factor in word division. 
It would be obviously wrong, e. g., to end a line with 
stag as the first syllable of staginess. The reader has 
to make a mental readjustment when he comes to the 
beginning of the next line. In all cases where etymo- 
logical division does not mislead as to sound, it should 
be the governing principle. 

The proper syllabification of words is best accom- 
plished by oral spelling. It is not necessary to utter 
the syllable after naming its letters, as was the old- 
fashioned way; a pause is sufficient. This pause 
should, however, be insisted upon. Since written 
spelling lessons have largely supplanted the old-style 
oral recitations, there has seemed to be a much greater 
ignorance in regard to word division. That this is 
at least a contributory cause seems to the author un- 
doubtedly true. In many words there may be dif- 



SPELLING 95 

ference of opinion as to proper division. The decision 
in such cases is generally immaterial so long as the 
pronunciation of the word is not affected. The print- 
ing or writing of words with hyphens or spaces be- 
tween the syllables is not to be recommended. This 
practice tends to differentiate the word so spaced from 
the word as a unit. We should avoid all such obstacles 
or sidetracks to our association trains. They are suf- 
ficiently difficult without any distractions. 

Oral Spelling — One undoubted advantage of oral 
spelling has been pointed out, viz., the emphasis it 
places upon syllabification. In addition to this, its 
employment of auditory or articulatory imagery gives 
it great advantage for minds of these types, and, 
though not all are predominately of these two types, 
none entirely lack these kinds of imagery. The larger 
the number of perceptive channels through which im- 
pressions are gained, the greater the likelihood of reten- 
tion and recall. Besides these considerations and in 
addition to its advantage as an interesting variant, 
oral recitation of spelling has all the advantages of 
oral recitation in general. The entire class profits by 
the mistakes of each pupil. Errors are quickly de- 
tected and promptness of response becomes an impor- 
tant factor in testing thoroughness of knowledge. On 
the other hand, there must be considered the disad- 
vantages of oral recitation, that it is frequently prof- 
ligate of time, and each recitation, instead of involv- 
ing class attention, too frequently degenerates into a 
teacher-pupil tete-a-tete. Oral spelling is undoubt- 
edly an excellent occasional class method. Like many 



96 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

another good method, it demands sagacity and alert- 
ness on the part of the teacher. 

Written Spelling. — The writing of words for pur- 
poses of drill and test is certainly the best general 
method. Before writing was invented there was no 
such thing as spelling. The only justification for 
spelling teaching today is that it is a necessary pro- 
pedeutic for writing. Practice in writing words is 
therefore a most rational procedure. Moreover, as in 
other written exercises, all the pupils can work simul- 
taneously and there is time economy. Every time a 
pupil writes a word correctly, there is an element of 
drill which serves to deepen the impression. Every 
time he writes a word incorrectly, the same associa- 
tive law operates to perpetuate the error. 

The utilitarian value of spelling consists in giving 
the pupil a knowledge of such words as he will have 
to use either in his school work or in after life. He 
should never be required to learn the spelling of a 
word of whose meaning he is in ignorance. The spell- 
ing drill should thus be correlated with the important 
work of vocabulary building. The teacher should as 
a rule dictate a word in a significant context, the pupil 
being required to write the word alone or the word 
and context. For example, the teacher, after the pu- 
pils have their papers in readiness, clearly pronounces 
the word arteries, then says: "The arteries carry 
blood away from the heart." If the emphasis is de- 
sired on the correlative aspect of the work, contexts 
or entire passages should be written from dictation, 
if the spelling of the word is the emphatic point, the 



SPELLING 97 

words to be spelt may be written singly in column 
form. Occasionally, but very seldom, should words 
be dictated minus their context. 

"We have seen in a previous chapter, that it is prob- 
ably unwise to make of every oral exercise a lesson 
in formal oral expression. This is not true of written 
Avork. Faulty rhetoric may at times be ignored for 
fear of distraction from the main issue, but misspelt 
words in any written exercise are not to be tolerated. 
After the writing is accomplished the thought energy 
is also spent, so that the argument of interruption 
does not apply here. All written work becomes an in- 
tegral part of spelling drill. In fact, the words in- 
correctly spelt in a letter or geography exercise as- 
sume greater importance than errors in the specific 
spelling lesson. They indicate that the pupil cannot 
use his knowledge in situations where that knowledge 
is absolutely demanded. Where term examinations 
in spelling are held, half, if not more, of the average 
should be computed on the written work in all the 
other subjects. 

Correction of Errors. — In spite of the teacher's most 
assiduous endeavors, mistakes will occur. These er- 
rors, wisely handled, provide an excellent means of 
focalizing the correct forms. As Galton pointed out, 
an error clearly seen, recognized as an error, and con- 
trasted with the correct form, furnishes a vivid associa- 
tive bond. The papers should invariably — of course, 
nothing is absolutely invariable in methods — be marked 
by the teacher and rewritten correctly by the pupil. 
It is a good plan to have each pupil keep an individual 



98 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

record of his misspelt words in a note book, or upon 
a folded leaflet in his spelling text-book. These in- 
dividual lists could then be assigned for subsequent 
study and used as a basis for oral drill. "An ill- 
favored thing, sir, but mine own," says Touchstone 
of Audrey, and the same affectionate attitude may be 
created in the pupil toward his record of errors. 
Words which a large number of pupils spell incor- 
rectly may be written upon a blackboard, and kept 
there as a constant visual reminder. The reinstruc- 
tion necessitated by these errors will depend upon 
their nature. 

Kinds of Spelling Errors. — Spelling errors may be 
divided into two great classes, viz., those due to igno- 
rance and those due to carelessness. There are several 
subclasses under each of these headings. Thus igno- 
rance may be due to imperfect teaching, or to inatten- 
tion, or to peculiar difficulty of the word, or to that 
imperfectly understood mental kink which shows itself 
in spelling, e. g., gril for girl and similar translitera- 
tions. The careless errors may be due either to 
general habits of carelessness; or to haste when too 
much written work has been assigned for a given 
period, or when some more interesting aim, such as eat- 
ing an orange, expedites the exercise ; or to carelessness 
of pronunciation ; or to the assimilative influence of a 
near word, as when a child who has just written Wil- 
liam Penn, writes pennmanship. In his interesting 
monograph on Spelling, Dr. Cornman has attempted 
an elaborate classification of spelling errors, which, 



SPELLING 99 

together with the rest of the work, would repay care- 
ful study by teachers. 

The above enumeration, though by no means scien- 
tific or exhaustive, is perhaps sufficient for my pur- 
pose. Let the teacher first recognize the fact that 
spelling errors spring from different causes, and hence 
require different remedies, and there will result marked 
improvement in this difficult subject. When a class 
frequently fails on the s's and p's of disappoint, its 
ignorance may be attributed to the fact that the teacher 
has ignored the prefix and word building method of 
rationalizing the word. The remedy is simple, once 
the cause of the error is appreciated. The word con- 
science furnishes another excellent example of a word 
whose acquisition is facilitated immensely by word- 
building. Again, the boy who is careless in every- 
thing may be expected to be careless in spelling as 
well. The pedagogical prescription in his case con- 
sists in creating an ideal of neatness and accuracy. 
Little improvement can be expected until this is ac 
complished. 

The teaching of spelling has been regarded by some 
educators as practically impossible under present 
methods. Experimental and statistical studies by 
Rice and Cornman seem to indicate that much of the 
time spent in specific spelling instruction is wasted. 
It would seem to the author that the only valid con- 
clusion from their researches would be that much 
present day spelling instruction is not instruction at 
all. There has been too much of the old Chinese 



100 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

method in spelling. If the distinction insisted on in 
this chapter between rational and arbitrary words is 
thoroughly grasped, together with its method implica- 
tions, and particularly if the character of the pupils' 
errors is studied and individual remedies applied, 
real instruction will supplant the traditional, routine 
drill. 

As in all other subjects, some pupils will naturally 
make more rapid progress than others. These indi- 
vidual variations are perhaps more conspicuous in 
spelling than in any other study of the curriculum. 
Inability to spell seems to have a deep mental cause, 
although it is by no means an indication of lack of 
intelligence. Conversely, exceptional spelling ability 
often goes hand in hand with mathematical or other 
deficiency. The ability or inability to spell is fre- 
quently a hereditary trait. The lack of talent would 
show itself most conspicuously in the arbitrary part 
of the language, which should therefore receive 
especial attention. Unfortunately we cannot say, as 
with music or dancing, "The child has no aptitude 
for it, don't worry him, let him drop it." So great is 
the conventional value of spelling that much embar- 
rassment is sure to ensue from any such laissez-faire 
course. The man or woman of today will be excused 
from singing or painting, but when he writes, he must 
spell correctly. 

Text-books. — Nothing in education is absolutely good 
or bad, simply better or worse. So with text-books. 
Ever so much, too, depends on how they are used. A 
spelling book is good to the extent to which it sug- 



SPELLING 101 

gests good teaching methods. None of the principles 
discussed in this chapter can safely be ignored in a 
text-book which claims to be usable. Pedagogic group- 
ing of rational words or syllables is demanded by 
thoughtful teaching, as is the constant association be- 
tween the word and its meaning by means of con- 
textual presages or otherwise. Word derivation is 
another essential of a modern text-book, which should 
be so full and complete that the teacher may make as- 
signments for study, or rather for drill, in great 
variety. In fact, a practical spelling book should com- 
prise an elementary etymological dictionary, with its 
words grouped on a psychological rather than an al- 
phabetical or philological basis. No text-book will 
relieve the teacher of the necessity of live teaching. 
But it should relieve her of the evil practice of hav- 
ing the pupils write from dictation or otherwise lists 
of words for subsequent study. The sooner this prac- 
tice is abandoned, the better. 



CHAPTER VII 

WRITTEN LANGUAGE 

Value of Written Language. — The ability to write in- 
telligently comes next in importance to the ability to 
talk and read. The man who makes a mark instead of 
a signature is rapidly disappearing from our midst. 
Despite the obvious utilitarian and conventional 
values of writing — I am not referring in this chapter 
to the mechanical art of penmanship — there has been 
frequently a failure to grasp its significance in the 
elementary school curriculum. Under the designa- 
tion Composition, it has become one of the most poorly 
taught subjects. No better illustration could be given 
of the failure to realize the true aim of a study. For 
what are we preparing the average elementary school 
pupils? Surely there is no intention of making au- 
thors or poets of them. The school course in drawing 
may help in the production of a Raphael, and the 
music lesson may help to bring out a Mozart, but such 
exceptional results would scarcely justify the inclu- 
sion of these subjects in the curriculum. Similarly 
with written language. The divine afflatus may mani- 
fest itself in the school product, but genius will out 
anyway, and it would be silly to shape our course 
of instruction for such uncertain results. 

102 



WRITTEN LANGUAGE 103 

The primary, utilitarian aim of instruction in writ- 
ten language is to enable the average pupil to com- 
pose correctly what he will likely be required to write 
in his future life. An important part of this instruc- 
tion was discussed in the last chapter under the head 
of Spelling. Punctuation and capitalization are also 
vital factors. Grammar and rhetoric complete the re- 
quirements. For the most part, the ordinary adult's 
writing comprises letters and business forms. Grace 
and charm should characterize social correspondence, 
while accuracy and neatness are the principal ele- 
ments demanded by the business world. To secure 
these aims is the most important, if not the sole, aim 
of elementary school instruction in written language. 
The wisdom of formal essays, descriptions, or narra- 
tions, below the high school, seems to the author ex- 
ceedingly questionable. 

Punctuation and Capitalization. — Punctuation and 
capitalization, plus spelling — excluding penmanship 
— comprise the mechanics of written language. Taken 
together, they are sometimes called dictation, as this 
is the method often used for drill and test exercises. 
Such designation of a subject of instruction by the 
name of a process of drill and test is quite significant 
and suggests a striking analogy with the inadequate 
spelling methods discussed in the last chapter. 

Punctuation, like spelling, is capable of division into 
rational and arbitrary factors, though here the former 
predominate. The practical passing of the semicolon 
and the use of dashes instead of parentheses must be 
recognized by the teacher as an indication of the rule 



104 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

of fashion in these matters. The principles of punc- 
tuation must be thoroughly grasped by the teacher so 
that she can discriminate between the essential and the 
non-essential in her instruction. Passages for study 
and drill should be carefully selected so that equivocal 
cases may be avoided. 

An excellent method for acquiring ability to punctu- 
ate and capitalize is to copy neatly and exactly pas- 
sages from literature. Time spent in this manner is 
most profitably employed. The passages thus copied 
may be compared with the original either by the pu- 
pils themselves or by their classmates, and subse- 
quently discussed by the teacher. A live lesson will 
result from the self-active processes involved in an- 
swering searching questions as to the reason for the 
various punctuation marks. As in other subjects, 
there is the danger of progressing too rapidly. Be- 
cause a class has grasped the function of the comma 
is no reason for hurrying on to complicated or puz- 
zling sentences. The few exceptionally bright pupils 
are benefited at the expense of the rest of the class. 
The inevitable result is uncertainty and lack of con- 
fidence. 

Primary Work. — As soon as the pupil has suffi- 
cient mastery of the letter forms he should be given 
practice in copying short passages from the Primer. 
Neatness and accuracy are the first considerations. 
While these habits are forming, short reproductions 
of interesting oral exercises may be written. The 
children's personal experiences, when susceptible to 
simple expression, form excellent material. Stories 



WRITTEN LANGUAGE 105 

read by the teacher, or by the pupils themselves should 
also be used. Well selected, striking pictures, usually 
first orally discussed, also afford a rich source of ma- 
terial for written work. Not only should these pic- 
tures be clear and striking, but they should be well 
within the range of the pupils' experience. Too 
often, the picture which happens to be the most ac- 
cessible is the one used, despite its lack of pedagogic 
appropriateness. 

The development of written language, both in the 
individual and in the race, indicates that its acquisi- 
tion must differ greatly from that of oral speech. In 
the latter the progress is from the vague to the 
definite, from the inchoate whole to the specific ele- 
ments. Written language, on the contrary, must be 
built up synthetically. First the letter, then the word 
and the sentence. For a long time sentence forma- 
tion must be practiced before the paragraph is at- 
tempted. The simple sentence, as the unit of written 
language, demands relative perfection before more 
elaborate exercises are possible. The saving word 
"relative" indicates, of course, that real perfection in 
written language is an unattainable ideal. An ana- 
lytic process from the vague to the definite becomes 
possible in the high school, where the students' writ- 
ten exercises become the basis for a thoroughgoing 
rhetorical study. 

Distinction Between Spoken and Written Language. 
— Much of the stilted oral work of the elementary 
school may be attributed to the failure on the part 
of the teacher to recognize the distinction between 



106 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

the ideals of spoken and of written language. We 
have all met persons whose speech might be charac- 
terized as bookish. Expressions like "It was they," 
"Than whom none is greater," "He will have at- 
tained his object," etc., though absolutely accurate, 
give to the oral speech a flavor of affectation. They 
are objectionable to the extent to which they take 
the ordinary listener's mind away from the thought 
to the manner of its expression. There are some edu- 
cators who would favor such an expression as "It 
was me" in colloquial speech. Though the author 
would not advise teachers to allow such expressions, 
he is forced to admit that it is only the traditional 
conservatism of education which compels his position. 
Without going so far , as to advocate such ungram- 
matical forms, one may resort to circumlocutions to 
avoid bookishness. The ideal of written expression 
while including clearness, force, and grace, also de- 
mands conciseness, which frequently necessitates forms 
of expression far from colloquial. 

There is also an important distinction between the 
vocabularies of oral and of written language. The 
"acquaintances" and sometime "strangers" referred 
to in Chapter IV. will fill a place more readily in 
written than in oral work. In fact, the written use 
of new words, where self-consciousness is apt to be 
absent, is an excellent means of converting verbal ac- 
quaintances into old friends. Just as man} 7 words 
would sound odd or affected in the pupil's oral lan- 
guage, so many passable colloquial expressions can 
have no place in written exercises. "I took the fel- 



WRITTEN LANGUAGE 107 

lows to the game" is good enough for talk, but must 
be converted for written purposes into- "I took the 
boys, or, my classmates to the game." Similarly 
' ' Who are you laughing at ? " must become ' ' At whom 
are you laughing ? " in writing. 

The use of slang, especially by English speaking 
people, is a difficult matter to handle. Here as 
everywhere the teacher's attitude must be conserva- 
tive. Even realizing the fact that slang has a definite 
relation to the growth of language, the school must 
be "the last by whom the new is tried." A nice 
sense of propriety in the choice of words is a most 
desirable possession. Doubt as to the status of a word 
should be sufficient to condemn its use. The pupil 
who habitually employs slang can be cured to some 
extent through the medium of his written work. In 
this case the pen is mightier than the tongue. Again, 
with older children an appeal to reason may be ef- 
fective. An older pupil can be made to realize that 
words, like people, are judged by the company they 
keep. It will be interesting to explain the influence 
of refinement and of fashion in the obsolescence of 
words. "Belly," for example, is impossible in mod- 
ern society because of its realistic picturesqueness. 
The right to use this and similar words is one of 
the few blessings of the poor and lowly. Appendi- 
citis cursed abdomens have taken the place of "fair 
round bellies." The word "sweat" is a good exam- 
ple of a word rapidly becoming obsolete or relegated 
to the lower classes. The appeal to the pupil's pride 
through the criterion of aristocratic usage is not, how- 



108 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

ever, universally applicable. The so-called better 
classes are often guilty of verbal, as well as of other 
fads. Scarcely a week passes but what some new 
slang expression is launched into use. Some of these 
expressions rise from the gutter to the mansion, others 
spring from the silliness of modern theatrical buffoon- 
ery, while still others originate in the usage of the bet- 
ter classes themselves. Whatever their origin, the 
teacher's attitude must be discouragement in oral ex- 
pression and absolute prohibition in writing. 

Study of Literature. — Not only in the mechanics of 
punctuation and capitalization, but also in the acqui- 
sition of style, the careful study and discussion of lit- 
erary passages will be found invaluable. The atti- 
tude of literary criticism though not always 
compatible with literary enjoyment helps the pupils 
to discover the means used by the author in getting 
the effect. Art is to conceal art, but the English teach- 
er's art must consist in digging up for her class the 
hidden tools of the master. Only in some such man- 
ner can the ordinary non-gifted mortal learn to write 
effectively. The accurate, thoughtful copying of a pas- 
sage from Thackeray or Stevenson affords a means 
of unconscious absorption, which though mysterious 
in its working is real in its results. Every teacher 
should be familiar with Franklin's account of his use 
of the "Spectator" in his Autobiography, not neces- 
sarily to be exactly imitated, but regarded as a richly 
suggestive field of endeavor. Here at least we find 
now one person actually did acquire a style. Surely 
others may well profit by his example. 



WRITTEN LANGUxVGE 109 

The Principle of Unity. — This all-important rhe- 
torical principle, as are practically all others, is ap- 
plicable to oral as well as to written language. It 
should be insisted on first in constructing sentences. 
Although in any extended exercise it is apt to pro- 
duce an abrupt or staccato effect, it is of such funda- 
mental importance that, in the beginning, grace and 
fluency may be sacrificed to it. The fact that each 
sentence should contain one and only one thought must 
acquire the force of a religious dogma. Oral exer- 
cises where sentence unity cannot be so insistently 
applied, furnish good material for written exercises 
in which the unity must be applied. It is probable 
here, as we found in the vocabulary work, that oral 
sentence unity will come through the medium of writ- 
ten sentence unity. 

The paragraph as a unit will in the early part of 
the work identify itself with the whole composition, 
so that unity of an entire literary product will peda- 
gogically precede the smaller paragraph unity. 
When the time arrives for this latter work — probably 
not until the fourth or fifth school year — the critical 
discussion of a well paragraphed story or description 
will be most helpful. Elementary school pupils are 
too young for the abstract generalizations of rhetoric. 
Example here is far more potent than precept. The 
teacher must be satisfied with distant approaches to 
perfection, otherwise she is doomed to discourage- 
ment. Oftentimes, the written work of a class may 
be corrected solely for its paragraph structure. This 
will focus attention on this one point. The author 



110 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

has found it convenient to use a I to indicate the 
place where a paragraph should begin and the same 
sign inverted to indicate that a new paragraph should 
not have been formed. 

Frequently pupils will be assisted by a plan or out- 
line of paragraphs, so that they may know just what 
is to be the subject of each. Such outlines should 
be worked out in class discussion and then a good 
one placed upon the blackboard to be used by the en- 
tire class. At other times a theme may be announced, 
and the pupils required to plan their own paragraph- 
ing in outline. These might be discussed, individual 
suggestions made by the teacher, and then used by 
the respective pupils. Such individual outlines should 
always be subject to correction in the course of writ- 
ing. When a different plan from that adopted seems 
advisable to the pupil, he should consult the teacher, 
and continue his work if the change meets with her 
approval. It must be remembered that one of the 
principal reasons for any plan is to have something 
which we can change if we desire. The original idea, 
however, forces us to have a reason for doing some- 
thing different. Hence the necessity of consultation 
with the teacher. 

Emphasis. — Second in importance to unity is the 
principle of emphasis. As applied to sentences, it 
means that they should be constructed in such a man- 
ner that the reader may get the meaning with the 
least possible effort of attention. What was said 
about the pause in connection with oral expression 
furnishes the psychological basis of rhetorical empha- 



WRITTEN LANGUAGE 111 

sis. The pause, it will be remembered, looks before 
and after, giving us time to think about what has 
just been said, and prepares us for what is to follow. 
The periodic pause at the close of a sentence, there- 
fore, means emphasis at the end of one sentence and 
at the beginning of the next. From which it is ob- 
vious that the beginning and end of sentences are the 
most emphatic positions. It is also obvious that they 
should be reserved for the most important words 
Grammar school pupils should clearly grasp both the 
fact and the reason for rhetorical sentence emphasis. 
Arbitrary rules, such as "Never end a sentence with 
a preposition," are to be used cautiously, if at all. 
Precisely the same principles apply to the paragraph, 
only with greater force. The pauses between para- 
graphs are naturally longer, and visually more con- 
spicuous than those between sentences. 

As soon as pupils are old enough to understand 
this principle, it should be persistently applied. As 
in the case of unity, so here, it will be a good plan 
to focalize attention by correcting some exercises sim- 
ply on the score of lack of emphasis, Oral expression 
will furnish more numerous examples of weak sen- 
tence structure than of lack of unity. Frequently, 
weak sentences, taken from the pupil's written exer- 
cises, should be placed upon the blackboard for class 
instruction and criticism. The pupil writer himself 
should be given the first opportunity to suggest a 
cure. If he is unsuccessful, other pupils may try. 
At times the teacher will have to suggest the remedy. 
Strong sentences also should frequently be placed 



112 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

upon the blackboard for commendation and instruc- 
tion. 

Clearness. — As soon as the pupil is old enough, he 
should be made to grasp the fundamental nature of 
the principle of clearness. Since the purpose of lan- 
guage is to convey ideas, any interference with the 
attainment of this goal is fatal. Ambiguity is there- 
fore the worst error possible in either written or oral 
expression. 

The nice choice of words, particularly the careful 
use of pronouns, and the right placing of modifiers 
are highly important factors in securing clearness. 
The pupil must be willing to sacrifice grace for clear- 
ness, whenever this choice of evils occurs. Vocabu- 
lary building and recording, as suggested in previous 
chapters, will do much to dispel the mist enveloping 
so many words of frequent use. Doubt in regard to 
the precise meaning of a word should always induce 
a state of worry or annoyance, an affective state which 
nothing but the clearing up of the word should re- 
lieve. The study of synonyms and antonyms will 
serve to demarcate more sharply the distinctions be- 
tween words. Prevalent errors, such as the use of 
infer for imply, should be made subjects of class in- 
struction. Clearness, as well as propriety, also de- 
mands the avoidance of local or slang expressions. 
Even though we are not preparing a race of authors, 
it is important that the pupil should realize the neces- 
sity of using words which are understood in the same 
sense everywhere. 

Careful instruction and drill are necessary to de- 



WRITTEN LANGUAGE 113 

velop a proper attitude toward the clear use of pro- 
nouns. The pupil must be strict with himself and 
form the habit of self questioning. "Will the reader 
know what the 'he,' 'this,' 'the former' stand for?" 
More than this, "Will the reader easily grasp the pro- 
nominal reference?" An absolute affirmative answer 
to these questions must be given before the sentences 
are to be regarded as satisfactory. The correction of 
ambiguous pronominal constructions by the class is an 
excellent exercise. In all such corrective work, the 
point to be illustrated must be plain, and the pupils 
must appreciate the reason for the change. Arbi- 
trariness on the part of the teacher has no place in 
this work. 

The improper placing of modifying elements is per- 
haps the most prolific source of sentence ambiguity. 
"Lost — a cane by a man with a golden head" will 
illustrate this kind of error. A humorous example of 
this kind forms an excellent type lesson. It facili- 
tates reference on the part of the teacher, and in- 
sures the intensity of the acquisition. The longer 
the sentence, the greater the liability of such mis- 
placed modifiers ; so that clearness reinforces the prin- 
ciple of Unity in demanding that, in the early part of 
the work, sentences should be short. 

Redundancy. — Not so vital as clearness, but of 
great importance, is the avoidance of redundancy. 
Conciseness is a more essential quality of written than 
of oral expression. If not carried too far, it means 
thought economy for the reader. Moreover, the un- 
necessary repetition of a thought dulls its edge and 



114 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

induces monotony. Imperfect knowledge of words, 
the failure to grasp the full connotation of a term, 
is often responsible for apparent redundancy. When 
the child writes "Our play ground covered an acre, 
which gave us plenty of room" his concept of an 
acre probably is usually lacking in the definite idea 
of roominess. Of course, if the reader's concept is 
equally vague, nobody need complain of the sentence 
as written. Generally, however, redundancy is due to 
hasty or careless sentence construction, the pupil ap- 
preciating his error as soon as it is pointed out. Pu- 
pils should understand that repetition does not al- 
ways constitute redundancy. Oftentimes a word is 
repeated for emphasis or clearness. Again the very 
effect of monotony may be desired by the writer. 
When Tennyson writes: — 

Break, break, break on thy cold gray stones, Sea! 

the repetition of the word ' ' break ' ' becomes peculiarly 
descriptive of the ceaseless action of the ocean. 

Figures of Speech. — So important is the bearing of 
figurative language upon the principles above dis- 
cussed, that it deserves a separate paragraph head- 
ing. A good simile or metaphor is a great aid to 
clearness and emphasis, just as a pointed allusion or 
illustration frequently illumines an entire passage. 
The mere fact of singling out an idea as worthy of- 
comparison at once intensifies it. Of course the more 
appropriate the analogy, the better. The writings of 
great authors can profitably be studied with this end 



WRITTEN LANGUAGE 115 

in view. "His mind was like wax to receive im- 
pressions and like marble to retain them" forces its 
superiority upon us when we place it side by side with 
"He was exceedingly impressionable and had a re- 
markably retentive memory." The paraphrasing of 
figurative language forms an excellent reductio ad ab- 
surdum for the class. The poverty of the pupils' re- 
sults will serve to bring out in sharp contrast the force 
of the original expressions. Tom Hood's 

Aunts as sure of dying rich 
As candles in golden sockets. 

is a good illustration of a simile which may be 
profitably used to produce the despair which leads 
to hope, or the darkness that precedes dawn. 

The metaphor leading in one case to slang and in 
another to the faded metaphor forms an interesting 
study for the language class. Many slang expressions 
may be traced to an originally figurative use. Such 
work will tend to make the pupil introspective or 
analytical in regard to his language, and will still 
further emphasize the important fact previously noted, 
that words, like individuals, are known by the com- 
pany they keep. "What other explanation can be of- 
fered for the fact that "dear" in "my dear friend" 
is a legitimate faded metaphor, while "kids" in the 
sentence, "The kids were playing ball" is slang? 
Such language analysis is as entertaining as it is edu- 
cationally beneficial. 

The pupils should also realize that a figure of 



116 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

speech to be effective must be striking or novel. With 
similes, as with stories, familiarity breeds contempt 
or indifference. When Dickens, in his Christmas 
Carol chances to use the simile, "as dead as a door 
nail," he enlivens it by his interesting analysis and 
suggestions. It will be found a good exercise to as- 
sign such "faded" or "dead" similes to the class 
and require them to originate new or live ones. The 
author has had some gratifying results from his classes 
in this work. "As cross as a bear," "As ugly as 
mud," "As thin as a rail," etc., have been trans- 
formed by grammar school pupils into really good 
similes. 

What has been said about similes and metaphors 
applies with equal force to personification and allu- 
sion, which are but other forms of comparison. In 
addition to these figures, grammar school pupils 
should recognize and appreciate the importance of 
irony, hyperbole, and alliteration. The proper use of 
these figures — if alliteration may be included under 
this name — is attended with greater difficulty than 
are the figures of pure comparison. The teacher's at- 
titude toward them should be one of encouragement 
when they are properly used. 

It is needless for me to say that no scientific or 
exhaustive classification of figurative language has 
been attempted here. Gummere's splendid book will 
be found a great help to those grammar school teach- 
ers who desire a full acquaintance with the subject. 
The author believes that pupils should go no further 
in figurative language study than he has indicated in 



WRITTEN LANGUAGE 117 

this paragraph. Of course, there is no limit to the 
knowledge of the subject which should be possessed by 
the teacher. 

Kinds of Composition. — It is doubtful whether ele- 
mentary school pupils should be required to know 
and distinguish the four forms of composition: De- 
scription, Narration, Exposition, and Argument. 
Their reading and study will bring them in contact 
with all these forms, but this fact does not necessitate 
an accurate knowledge of them as forms. Descrip- 
tion and narration, however, are of such importance 
that the author feels justified in contending that these 
two forms should be clearly distinguished in the ele- 
mentary school, their aims and principles compre- 
hended, and the two designations understood in their 
precise application to written and oral language. 

Description. — As with various grammatical and 
rhetorical phases of this work, so with description, 
the pupil will have considerable practice before he 
needs or learns any exact terminology. Oral work of 
an extensive character will precede written exercises. 
When a certain fluency in written work has been ac- 
quired, these oral exercises may be made the basis for 
writing. They should deal for the most part with 
actual observations or experiences of the children. 
The best subjects are those details of the environment 
which the pupils know in common — the school room, 
its pictures, fellow pupils, the school yard, nearby 
buildings, etc. 

The first aim in this descriptive work should be 
fulness and clearness. Ideals of accurate observation 



118 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

should be developed as an integral part of the work. 
Commendation should be given to the pupil who de- 
tects some important point which the other pupils 
have failed to observe or note. Description by enu- 
meration, as it is called, must be the prevailing form 
assumed by this work. At first, the accounts will be 
little more than itemized catalogs or inventories. 

After considerable practice in this kind of descrip- 
tion, the pupils should be led to realize the importance 
of the order of details and their relative importance 
or subordination. Some naturally gifted pupils will 
have appreciated this fact prior to definite instruc- 
tion. Writing their compositions on the board, and 
placing commendatory emphasis upon their grasp of 
the relativity of details will serve not only to give 
them deserved encouragement, but will also form an 
inductive basis for instruction. Out of this work will 
develop the necessity for paragraph unity and a plan 
or outline. The suggestions contained in the previous 
section on Unity can be profitably applied here. The 
suppression or omission of unimportant details should 
also be discussed. The point of view which we de- 
sire to create in the pupil hinges on the necessity for 
ejective knowledge. He must ever ask himself 
"What picture will the person form who reads these 
words?" And this ejective standpoint applies to the 
order as well as to the enumeration of the descriptive 
details. "What is the most striking feature? What 
would a spectator notice first?" now become the im- 
portant considerations. 

When we come to description by suggestion and 



WRITTEN LANGUAGE 119 

by characterization, it is questionable whether we 
should attempt any more with elementary pupils than 
their mere appreciative recognition. Literary study 
should make clear these important forms of descrip- 
tion, so that the pupils may distinguish them from 
each other and both from description by enumera- 
tion. Both characterization and suggestion will crop 
up now and again in the written work of the gifted 
or ambitious pupil. When they appear, they should 
receive commendation, but they should not be re- 
quired. 

Narration. — Good narration is more difficult than 
description. There are few really good story tellers. 
A story is, however, more interesting as a rule, than 
a description. Where description and narration are 
combined, as they are in most novels, the modern 
reader tends to expedite his work by omitting the 
former. And this habit is not so reprehensible as 
some would have us believe, for after all, the story's 
the thing. The pattern of the rug on which our hero 
kneels is not nearly so important as the fact that he 
is kneeling as he proposes marriage to the fair heroine. 
The wonderful development of the drama and short 
story, bristling with action, clearly indicates the pass- 
ing of the old fashioned novel with its interminable 
descriptions. 

As with description, so with narration, the pupils' 
early work must be a kind of enumeration of events, 
generally in chronological order but with little or 
no regard to their relative importance. Here again 
the exploitation of the bright or gifted pupils, ex- 



120 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

hibiting and explaining their work, forms an excellent 
stepping stone for their less talented classmates. 
They must be led to see that the suppression or omis- 
sion of unimportant detail, which in description was 
desirable, becomes for narration a necessity. The 
comprehension of this vital principle is far easier 
than its application. Oral narration affords a good 
basis for the teacher's constructive criticism. The 
word constructive is important here, for much harm 
is often done by an attitude on the part of teacher and 
class which is rather destructive and flaw detecting. 
There is, in almost every pupil's attempt, some com- 
mendable element, on which as a basis, may be carried 
out the work of reconstruction. 

The critical study and analysis of good stories; 
e. g., Hawthorne's David Swan, Irving 's Rip van 
Winkle, de Maupassant's Diamond Necklace, Poe's 
Tell Tale Heart, will arouse in the pupils a spirit of 
ambition and emulation, which, if it does not make 
good story tellers of them, will at least have accom- 
plished the end of greater literary appreciation. In 
revising their own attempts, the pupils must practice 
distinguishing the weeds from the blossoms. Con- 
scientious weeding of the superfluous and point-dis- 
tracting is a most useful accomplishment. Poe's 
classic Critique on the philosophy of the short story 
should be familiar to every teacher of English. His 
views, which are now universally accepted, could ad- 
vantageously be filtered through the medium of the 
teacher's instruction and imbibed by the pupils. 

The title of a narrative is by no means an unim- 



WRITTEN LANGUAGE 121 

portant element. Critical consideration of literary 
titles will form an interesting exercise. The pronoun 
"Your" in Arnold Bennett's "Your United States" 
may serve as an illustration of a most felicitous epi- 
thet. Let the pupils discuss the titles of the stories 
they read and try to appreciate their appropriateness 
or suggest better ones. David Swan, for instance, 
might be profitably used as a lesson in title improve- 
ment. The pupils are prone to fall into the error 
of having the title tell too much, thus oftentimes di- 
minishing the surprise element which is such an im- 
portant factor in the reader's enjoyment. A title 
should be attractive and striking, but its absolute ap- 
propriateness should not be realized until the read- 
ing of the story is completed. Critical work of the 
kind here outlined is also productive of keener liter- 
ary appreciation. 

When we consider the Happiness value of this work 
in oral and written narration, we may justly make the 
additional statement that if it brings about any ap- 
preciable diminution of the boredom of the untrained 
story teller or raconteur it will have well earned its 
place in the curriculum. 

Humor. — The ability to say and write funny things 
becomes more and more important for our spiritual 
welfare as the world in its social, political, and in- 
dustrial aspects takes itself more seriously. The sav- 
ing grace of humor was never more saving or grace- 
ful than at the present time. Although being funny 
is probably a hereditary trait or propensity, it is 
capable of training and devolpment. Of course, a 



122 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

certain spontaneity naturally belongs to humor. Its 
appreciation, however, can be furthered by definite 
class exercise. 

No psychological analysis of the essence of the lu- 
dicrous will be attempted here. It will suffice to point 
out the prime importance of the element of shock 
or surprise. Numerous jokes and conundrums will 
illustrate the vital principle. Another important fac- 
tor for the reciter of a funny story or joke to remem- 
ber is the apperceptive preparation of the listener's 
mind — the cautious lighting of the fuse which will 
eventually cause the explosion. This preparation is 
directly the opposite of that stage of the teaching 
process which calls up appropriate or fitting apper- 
ceptive systems. Undoubtedly an essential part of the 
appreciation of humor consists in the self-satisfac- 
tion of the reader who finds his vanity tickled by ap- 
prehending the more or less recondite point. This 
last consideration has an important bearing, as it in- 
dicates that a considerable part of the reader's en- 
joyment is spoiled if the point is made, as in the 
case of Wouter van Twiller, ' ' as plain as a pike staff. ' ' 

Let me illustrate with the old conundrum, "What 
is worse than biting into an apple and finding a 
worm?" Answer, "Finding half a worm." The 
reader who may never have chanced to have heard 
this joke will at once notice the glow of self-satisfac- 
tion at seeing the point. There would be numerous 
ways of intensifying the surprise. The usual method, 
successfully tried by the author with the young and 
unwary, is to stir up the little apperceptive system, 



WRITTEN LANGUAGE 123 

rather by innuendo than by direct statement, con- 
cerning the riddle of two pigs under a gate making 
more noise than one. This will tend to make the vic- 
tim feel himself a victor at once and promptly re- 
spond: "Two worms." Of course, with the older 
and more sagacious, subtler means must be devised. 
Applying these few fundamental principles, the writ- 
ing of jokes and funny stories will prove a beneficial 
and interesting exercise. It will, moreover, accom- 
plish the desirable end of turning upward the lip cor- 
ners, and broadening the often long faces of teacher 
and pupils. 

Originality. — In the discussion of Imagination in 
Chapter II. it was pointed out that the combination 
of ideas in creative activity should be considered orig- 
inal to the extent to which the individual's personality 
was the guiding principle. In other words, original- 
ity did not mean the creation of something different 
from anything previously existing, but only some- 
thing resulting from the pupil's activity guided by 
principles or standards which could be called in a 
definite sense his own. Originality thus understood 
is seen to be practically synonymous with sincerity, 
and it is the distinguishing mark of all true art. The 
composer has gathered a fund of musical ideas from 
his teaching and his study. In combining these ideas, 
he is guided by his own standards of beauty or what- 
ever emotional state he is tone-painting. The result 
is a work of art, the first requisite of which is that 
the artist be true to himself. The possession of a 
worthy self to be true to is also to be borne in mind 



124 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

and a most difficult aim it is for the school. Simi- 
larly the painter in making a portrait produces a 
work of art to the extent to which he expresses him- 
self on the canvas. Smith's portrait of Jones, though 
bearing a physical resemblance to Jones, portrays him 
as interpreted by Smith. The subtle nuances of ex- 
pression, the emphasis and subordination are all 
Smith's. This fundamental fact will forever lift ar- 
tistic portraiture above photography. The best, most 
accurate photograph of nature or of a human being 
falls short of being art exactly in so far as the camera 
falls short of the human being in personality. 

The application of this view of originality to writ- 
ing is obvious. Each pupil is a person, albeit an un- 
developed person. Some educators are of the opin- 
ion that any attempt at originality in the elementary 
school is unwise. This view the author belives to 
be due to a faulty or incomplete analysis of original- 
ity. Understood in the sense here discussed, original- 
ity is possible to the kindergarten child. In fact the 
suppression of some forms which this originality takes 
becomes an important and trying part of the teach- 
er's work. Suppression, however, must never become 
extermination. The opposite of originality is affecta- 
tion, striving for an effect in a purely imitative way. 
There is, perhaps, a graver danger of affectation than 
of any other evil as a result of modern school pro- 
cedure. It should, so far as possible, be persistently 
discouraged. This danger is particularly conspicuous 
in written language. The mechanics of penmanship, 
spelling, punctuation, and proper sentence structure, 



WRITTEN LANGUAGE 125 

all have to be learned in an imitative way. Spon- 
taneity, self expression, tends to be long delayed in 
written work. This is unfortunate and to some ex- 
tent unnecessary. If the right kind and amount of 
oral work is done, it can be so related to the written 
exercises as to form a basis for original written work. 
True, in style and other externals, the pupil's at- 
tempts will be imitative. Let him, however, feel that 
the subject he is writing about is his own. He may 
have to form an O or place a comma according to his 
teacher's direction, but his experiences and ideas 
are his own possession. From the beginning there- 
fore, honesty and sincerity — in other words original- 
ity — at least as to content, are essential. Ability to 
distinguish between worthy and unworthy, fit and un- 
fit ideas and thoughts is the result of careful train- 
ing and development. But whatever selection he 
makes or is impelled to make, the ideas he expresses 
should represent his own thoughts and convictions. 

Letter Writing. — In the recollection of the author, 
the dullest part of the school day was the period set 
aside for writing compositions. This was probably 
due to the fact that the instruction was aimless, and 
the subjects poorly selected, oftentimes with no re- 
gard for the pupils' knowledge or interests. The 
teaching of written language has doubtless improved 
greatly since the author's boyhood, but vagueness and 
aimlessness still seem to characterize this important 
branch of the curriculum. This condition is reflected 
in courses of study as well as in the instruction. 
Some excellent text-books have made their appearance 



126 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

recently, so that in this, as well as in many other 
subjects, good texts are blazing the trail for good 
teaching. 

One cause of the dullness of much composition work 
may be found in the fact that it does not appeal to 
the child as being of any particular use. No school 
exercise can long resist the charge of uselessness. 
The surest way to awaken a pupil's interest in any 
subject is to reveal to him its applications. Let him 
use what he has learned and his realization of the 
truism that knowledge is power will act as a spur to 
further endeavor. So far, then, as written language 
is concerned, we must remember that a tremendous 
majority of our pupils will, as men and women, write 
only letters and business forms. The latter need not 
be discussed here as their consideration belongs 
strictly to arithmetic. Letter writing, however, re- 
veals emphatically the utilitarian aspect of writing. 
It should therefore, in the author's opinion, constitute 
the main if not the sole factor of the elementary course 
in written language. 

The suggestion that letters should form the princi- 
pal work of the elementary school may seem radical. 
However, when we consider the utilitarian appeal 
and also the fact that good letter writing implies 
a knowledge of all the principles discussed in this 
chapter, that it may, for example, include description 
and narration, the extreme character of the idea seems 
to disappear. The only difference between epistolary 
style and the principles discussed above lies in the 
admissibility of a freer and more colloquial style. 



WRITTEN LANGUAGE 127 

Even this distinction, however, would not apply to 
formal correspondence, which would of course con- 
stitute one of the forms to be carefully taught. In- 
terest may be added by encouraging a system of 
pupil-parent, inter-class, inter-school or inter-city cor- 
respondence. Such letters should be written in the 
first place by the pupils, and after marking by the 
teacher, should be re-written correctly by the pupils 
and sent to their respective destinations. By no 
means an unimportant result of such work would be 
the constant drill in correct forms of address, signa- 
ture, superscription, useful knowledge in which many 
of our elementary and high school pupils are sadly 
deficient. 

Marking Papers. — The English teacher is often an 
object of deep sympathy among her colleagues, a 
sympathy explained by the fact that she is called 
upon to mark so many papers. Anyone who has ever 
done such work must recall its irksomeness. Still, it 
has to be done. And this for two reasons, first, the 
average pupil will not do his best if he feels that his 
work will not receive critical examination, and sec- 
ond, the marking of errors is the only possible way 
of insuring improvement. We must never forget, 
however, that the teacher is a person not a machine, 
and that there is a limit to her power of working. 
Her highest energy and vitality should be in evi- 
dence during the period when she is actually facing 
the class. The woman who stays up night after night 
until twelve or one o'clock marking papers is in no 
condition to vitalize her instruction on the following 



128 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

day. The conscientious teacher must realize this im- 
portant fact and plan her work accordingly. One 
obvious solution has been already suggested as a 
means of focalizing attention. The correction of just 
one kind of error, such as emphasis, unity, or re- 
dundancy will lighten the work considerably. A sys- 
tem of abbreviations (S for spelling, C for colloquial, 
etc.) is a plan used by many teachers. Again, both 
good pedagogy and economy of the teacher's energy 
can be secured by having comparatively short instead 
of lengthy exercises. It would not be a heinous of- 
fense to mark some of these shorter exercises during 
school hours, while the class is engaged in useful drill 
work not demanding the teacher's attention. 

The returning of the marked papers should be made 
a time for individual instruction, the pupils consult- 
ing the teacher in regard to the meaning of the marks 
not understood or as to the best form of correction. 
A regular consultation period after school hours is 
a plan sometimes used, but I see no reason why this 
could not be done in a well conducted class during the 
re-writing. 



CHAPTER VIII 
GRAMMAR 

What is English Grammar? — This question assumes 
importance when we bear in mind that English has 
been called the grammarless tongue. If this state- 
ment were true, there would be no grammar to teach. 
Like most such striking expressions, however, it is 
a gross exaggeration. English being an analytic 
rather than a synthetic language is naturally practi- 
cally devoid of inflections. But this only amounts to 
saying that its grammar is different, for example, 
from that of Latin or Greek. For years English 
grammarians have attempted to pour our English 
speech into the Latin grammatical mould. This at- 
tempt was of course foredoomed. The failure to ac- 
complish this impossibility has probably led to the 
characterization of our language as a grammarless 
tongue. It may be confidently asserted that the 
proper use of the auxiliaries in English conjugations 
requires as much studious consideration as does the 
use of inflectional endings in a synthetic language. 

Again grammar, as the term is regarded by many 
educators, is an abstruse philosophical study, which 
the immature intelligence of the elementary school 
pupil is not ready to attack. We shall discuss this 

129 



130 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

point somewhat fully in considering the time when 
grammatical study should begin. We must admit 
that a rational English grammar is still a desideratum 
rather than an actuality. There is, however, a suffi- 
cient mass of knowledge on which all grammarians 
are agreed. Of course differences of terminology are 
to be deplored, but even this condition does not present 
an insuperable difficulty. The fact of the matter is 
that there is such a thing as English grammar, and 
further that it is highly desirable that some portions 
of it should be taught in the elementary school. Dif- 
ferences in terminology among grammarians, however, 
make it necessary that we define our terms carefully ; 
so that before we decide on the best method of teach- 
ing a topic, we may be fairly sure that we all under- 
stand the terms in the same sense. 

Values of Study of Grammar. — The study of gram- 
mar has several important values. They may roughly 
be classed as first, disciplinary value; second, utili- 
tarian — and conventional — values; third, propaedeutic 
values. A clear grasp of the aim of grammar teaching 
has so important a bearing upon method that each 
of these values merits at least a paragraph of dis- 
cussion. 

Disciplinary Value. — Grammar is often justified as a 
curricular subject on account of its use in training 
abstraction, judgment, and reasoning. In Chapter I. 
there was explained in some detail the modern psycho- 
logical attitude toward training a mental faculty. 
In Chapter II. the importance of ideas of relationship 
was insisted upon. Combining the implications of 



GRAMMAR 131 

these two discussions the so-called disciplinary value 
of grammar is seen to consist of splendid opportun- 
ities afforded for the creation of ideals of accuracy, 
clearness of statement, close scrutiny, and cautious 
reasoning. It is futile, however, to await these re- 
sults as the unconscious influence of mere grammar 
study. The teacher must be on the alert to employ 
as they occur the many opportunities to arouse these 
ideals. 

In referring to grammar as the logic of the elemen- 
tary curriculum, as a. few educators have remarked 
and a hundred others copied, there is reference prob- 
ably to the frequent occurrence of ideas of relation- 
ship, which, until recently, had not been regarded by 
psychologists as a separate kind of ideas. The compre- 
hension of relationship is absolutely necessary to a 
grasp of grammar. In so far as language and thought 
are intimately connected, verbal relationships become 
in a measure thought relationships. In focalizing 
attention upon these relationships of ideas, as gram- 
mar does, there results not formal discipline, as usually 
understood, but what results in practically the same 
thing, a stock of ideas of relationship. This definite 
enlargement of the mental content means correspond- 
ing growth of intelligence in so far as such ideas enable 
us to comprehend our environment more readily and 
otherwise further mental organization. 

Utilitarian Value. — It is difficult to distinguish be- 
tween the utilitarian and conventional values of gram- 
mar. To speak and to write correctly are both useful 
and proper accomplishments. To understand what 



132 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

one reads is manifestly useful. The influence of 
grammatical knowledge upon the formation of correct 
habits of speech is questioned by many educators. 
Some regard it as practically negligible. From this 
opinion I dissent absolutely. All will agree that habits 
of correct speech are, as a rule, the outcome of living 
in an environment where correct forms are constantly 
heard. If such environments were universal, there 
were probably no need for the study of grammar to 
accomplish this end. Such environments are, however, 
far from universal. Moreover, neither the teacher's 
careful speech nor her insistence on correct forms in 
the classroom will suffice to obliterate the tremendous 
influence of bad speech surroundings. A very small 
percentage of the child 's waking hours — I think about 
eight per cent — are spent in school during the first ten 
years of his life. The force of the teacher's example 
plus regular drill on correct forms cannot hope to 
compete with the ninety-two per cent of home and 
street influence. The generalizations of grammar are 
needed to supply what the pupil may possibly not ap- 
ply when learned but what he may gladly resort to 
when the social demand arises. The rules of gram- 
mar form, as it were, a good suit of clothes which the 
country bumpkin may wear when he visits the city, 
or which he may acquire the habit of wearing con- 
stantly if he perchance take up a permanent residence 
in the city. "What these helpful generalizations are 
will be discussed fully in a subsequent paragraph. 

The study of grammar has a more direct bearing 
upon correct forms of written language. Writing, for 



GRAMMAR 133 

most pupils, tends to remain an artificial accomplish- 
ment. It is only in so far as written language is an 
outgrowth of oral expression that it is apt to exhibit 
errors due to unfortunate environment. The thought 
and deliberation required for writing render less liable 
errors of mere carelessness. Just as the artificial na- 
ture of this medium of expression makes it better 
adapted to vocabulary building, so it also forms a good 
field for the sowing of grammatical seeds. "Taller 
than him, ' ' for example, may slip into colloquial speech 
long after it has been banished from writing. So in 
written work, many of the generalizations of grammar 
form a basis for the mental organization of language 
relationships and thus substitute a rational appeal for 
the inadequate results of repetition or drill. I do not 
wish the reader to construe what has been said above 
as intended to discredit the potency of the teacher's 
example and drill in correct grammatical forms. Such 
work is invaluable. My point is merely that the time 
which can be set aside for such influences in school 
is insufficient to produce lasting results. As soon as 
the pupils are mature enough to comprehend the 
generalizations of grammar, reasoning on the basis 
of principles must reinforce imitation. 

The most strictly utilitarian value of grammar is 
the aid which it gives the pupil in understanding 
what he reads. This is not true of grammar in general 
but applies particularly to grammatical analysis. The 
habit of regarding a sentence as a synthesis of sub- 
ject, predicate, and modifiers, gives the pupils a readier 
insight into the relationship of ideas in the para- 



134 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

graph, which is but another way of saying a quicker 
comprehension of the thought. The more involved the 
sentence — e. g., the inverted orders of poetry — the 
more necessary it becomes to grasp these analytic rela- 
tionships. The possession by the pupil of an analytic 
terminology is a great aid, as it enables the teacher 
to clear up difficult passages by brief references in- 
stead of distracting circumlocutions. Such or such a 
word is the "subject," this or that "phrase" "modi- 
fies" the "predicate," etc., etc., simplify immensely 
the interpretative teaching of literature. Besides, 
this grammatical terminology facilitates the correction 
of errors. "You should use the 'adverb'," says the 
teacher to the boy who says "He ran quick." No 
further illustrations are necessary to show the in- 
dispensability of such a terminology. 

Corrective Grammar. — Before considering the pro- 
paedeutic value of grammar, it seems desirable to enu- 
merate briefly those parts of the subject which have a 
sufficient bearing upon correct forms of speech to 
justify, on this basis alone, their inclusion in the ele- 
mentary school curriculum. The analytic elements of 
the sentence have already been referred to as supply- 
ing an indispensable nomenclature. The names and 
principal properties of the parts of speech are also 
necessary. The declension of nouns, except for the 
possessive forms and formation of plural, is useless 
from the standpoint of this paragraph. The declen- 
sion of pronouns, however, both personal and relative, 
assumes great importance particularly in connection 
with the teaching of case. The distinction of modes 



GRAMMAR 135 

is unessential, but the tenses of the indicative must be 
thoroughly comprehended. The distinction between 
weak and strong verbs is useful, as is also the learn- 
ing the principal parts of the common strong verbs, 
particularly the terms preterit and past participle and 
the use of the latter in the compound tenses. It is 
helpful to know what is meant by an infinitive, so that 
the pupil may know what it is that is being "split." 
It would require too much space and explanation to 
make an exhaustive enumeration of all the "cor- 
rective" parts of grammar. What has been mentioned 
will perhaps suffice to indicate the nature of this kind 
of grammatical study. It is a very useful habit of 
mind for the grammar teacher to examine every part 
of the subject for the purpose of ascertaining its re- 
lationship to correctness of speech. Frequently help- 
ful suggestions as to methods will result from this 
view point. 

Propaedeutic Value. — Some educators lay stress on 
the importance of the study of English grammar as a 
preparation for the study of other languages. It is 
obvious that such propaedeutic value will be directly 
proportional to the resemblance of the languages in 
regard to vocabulary and syntax. There is no doubt, 
for instance, that a French lad will find his knowledge 
of French grammar a distinct aid in the study of other 
Romance languages. It would not be of nearly so 
much assistance, however, in his acquisition of Ger- 
man or Norwegian. Similarly, the study of English 
grammar will form a better preparation for the study 
of German than for that of French or Latin. 



136 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

It is highly desirable that an English speaking pupil 
should possess a tolerably complete nomenclature of 
English grammar before attempting the high school 
study of a foreign tongue. The difficulties of an un- 
known vocabulary are sufficiently estranging without 
the additional complication of new abstract gram- 
matical conceptions. The appreciation of subject and 
object, number, tense, etc., in his mother tongue will 
render the grasp of these subjects much easier in con- 
nection with a foreign language. 

There is room for much improvement in grammat- 
ical terminology. The responsibility for the present 
inchoate condition rests primarily upon the writers of 
text-books. We find a number of different terms used 
for the same idea in various English grammars. This 
alone is to be deplored, but it is made even worse 
by the additional varieties found in the foreign lan- 
guage text-books. This condition is certainly remedi- 
able and its continuance diminishes perceptibly the 
propedeutic value of elementary English grammar. 
If the Latin, Greek, and German grammarians insist 
on the term "genitive" is it not high time that our 
English text-books should substitute this term for 
"possessive"? Numerous other illustrations could 
be cited. And it is not merely a matter of words. 
Oftentimes, the same word will be employed in very 
different senses by different grammarians — I use the 
latter term courteously rather than advisedly, the des- 
ignation "text-book makers" being more appropriate 
— as exemplified by such terms as voice and clause. 
It would seem desirable that uniformity should exist 



GRAMMAR 137 

at least in all the schools of a city system. Some prac* 
tical results along this line might be secured by a com- 
mittee, consisting of superintendents, college profes- 
sors, principals, and teachers. 

The Place of Elementary Grammar. — As indicated 
above, there are some educators who regard the study 
of grammar as too difficult for the elementary school. 
Its abstractions, they contend, are beyond the mental 
grasp of the average pupil. Others would begin 
English grammar not lower than the seventh or eighth 
school year. Their argument is reinforced by the con- 
sideration of its propaedeutic value. Since foreign 
language study in most American schools is reserved 
for secondary education, it is held that English gram- 
mar in so far as it prepares for such study is best taken 
up at the conclusion of the elementary school course. 

Both of these arguments fail to take into considera- 
tion the tremendous corrective value of English gram- 
mar properly taught. It would be truly lamentable if 
the poor teaching characteristic of this subject were to 
lead to its banishment from the curriculum. Ill ad- 
vised courses of study and term examinations must 
perhaps share the blame with faulty teaching methods. 
To some extent the former are the cause and the latter 
the effect. The trouble has been that the complica- 
tions, the niceties and disputed points of grammar 
have taken up too much of the teacher's time. Inter- 
esting and indispensable drill in fundamentals has 
been thrust aside in consequence. These fundamentals 
are not essentially difficult, in fact, the elementary 
principles of analysis are well within the comprehen- 



138 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

sions of fifth year pupils. The distinction of noun 
and verb is not too hard for a sixth year pupil, nor is 
the recognition of the principal parts of speech — not 
necessarily the unfailing recognition, but that of the 
simpler typical instances. Number and case, voice 
and tense can be so taught as to be readily grasped — 
in their simple forms — by seventh and eighth grade 
pupils. It is the insistence on the simplicity of the 
forms which principals and teachers should ever keep 
in mind. The practice of taking a poem at random 
and requiring the understanding of its every syntac- 
tical and etymological point is responsible for much 
of the disrepute into which grammar teaching has 
fallen. 

Grammatical Concepts and Definitions. — What was 
said about concept formation in Chapter II. applies 
directly to the study of grammar. Particularly im- 
portant is the distinction between connotation and de- 
notation of terms. Much of the poor teaching of 
technical grammar in the past has been due to the 
failure of teachers to grasp the nature and develop- 
ment of the concept. The formal definition, often- 
times committed to memory, has taken the place of 
that normal growth of ideas attainable only through 
self-activity. Sooner or later even traditional teachers 
were bound to recognize the fact that ability to recite 
a definition was frequently compatible with conceptual 
vagueness or profound ignorance. Furthermore, the 
demand for complete and accurate definitions naturally 
emphasized the abstruseness of the subject and con- 
tributed its quota to the disregard for technical gram- 



GRAMMAR 139 

mar, a disregard which has come dangerously near 
banishing it from the elementary curriculum. 

The value of grammar, so far as its nomenclature is 
concerned, does not consist of the precise grasp of the 
connotation of its terms, not thorough-going definitions, 
but much more of a ready recognition of its unequivo- 
cal denotations, with just as much connotative defini- 
tion as may be well within the range of the pupils' com- 
prehension and thus assist the attainment of conceptual 
clearness. The trouble with many grammar text- 
books is that they are neither scientifically grammatical 
nor avowedly pedagogical. Teachers would fre- 
quently be willing to sacrifice the former qualification 
for the latter. The old-fashioned method of studying 
lists of prepositions had a psychological justification 
in the fact that it was based on the importance of 
ability to recognize prepositions wherever they oc- 
curred. Where the denotation of a term is narrow, 
as with prepositions and relative pronouns, commit- 
ting lists to memory is not a bad plan. The examina- 
tion of the uses of such words in various contexts 
will furnish sufficient perceptual basis for the concept. 
Provisional, intelligible definitions should accompany 
this denotative work. Surely such a plan is immeas- 
urably superior to the unreasoning dependence on for- 
mal and unintelligibly accurate definitions. A pupil 
instructed in the manner here suggested will have 
little difficulty in distinguishing, e. g., between ''but" 
used as a conjunction and the same word used as a 
preposition. The learning of some carefully worded 
accurate definitions may perhaps give a finishing touch 



140 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

to eighth year grammar study, but even this is of 
doubtful wisdom. Of what earthly use is it, from any 
value standpoint, to require a definition of the article ? 
That the articles are a, an, and the is all the con- 
ceptional knowledge of this part of speech compatible 
with the aim of the elementary course. Where, how- 
ever, connotations are sufficiently simple as in the con- 
cepts of number and person, definitions are a help, 
but even here there is danger in the formal definition 
learned verbatim. 

The Socratic Method. — The discussion of the preced- 
ing paragraph brings us naturally to the considera- 
tion of self-activity as the prime method of grammar 
teaching. The formation of concepts into permanent 
and organized entities demands that the pupil should 
use his own observation, reasoning, and abstraction. 
The Socratic method becomes particularly applicable 
here. The child, before entering on the study of 
grammar, has had considerable practice and training 
in grammatical forms. He uses with fair accuracy 
the various parts of speech and applies, though un- 
consciously, the principles of syntax. All that re- 
mains for the teacher is the nice task of clarifying and 
classifying his mental content. The labeling of the 
resultant concepts constitutes the important work of 
grammatical terminology. The fifth grade pupil, for 
example, habitually uses subjects and predicates in his 
written sentences, but does not know them as such. 
Sentences written by the pupils themselves and placed 
upon the blackboard can be used as the basis for a So- 



GRAMMAR 141 

cratic lesson out of which the subject and predicate 
ideas will soon develop. Extensive drill with constant 
repetition of the words subject and predicate will soon 
fix these concepts. The teacher may feel fairly satis- 
fied with her instruction when the entire class has 
grasped the fact that every sentence has a subject and 
a predicate, and can pick them out unfailingly in 
simple sentences. In addition to this knowledge, pro- 
visional descriptions — not definitions necessarily — of 
subject and predicate are all that should then be re- 
quired of the pupils. Most, if not all, of the elemen- 
tary concepts of grammar can be interestingly de- 
veloped in this Socratic manner. 

The Type Method. — Although recognition of denota- 
tion supplemented by provisional definition forms the 
principal aim of grammar teaching, so far as its tech- 
nique is concerned, clearness of conception may oc- 
casionally be aided by an application of the type 
method. The thorough teaching of one such preposi- 
tion as "in" or "through," with special reference to 
its function as a word of relation, will aid considerably 
in the grasp of the use of the preposition as a sen- 
tence element. This is a good method in developing 
such a concept as participle where an accurate defi- 
nition would probably be insufficient to insure denota- 
tive recognition. It should be observed, moreover, 
that in the elementary school, the words whose recog- 
nition and grasp of function are demanded, should de- 
part but little from the typical form. Ambiguous or 
equivocal cases should be studiously avoided. This 



142 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

important consideration — too often disregarded — ■ 
renders the type method of instruction particularly 
valuable. 

False Syntax. — Reference has been made previously 
to the educative value of an error clearly grasped as 
an error and emphatically corrected. Exercises in so 
called false syntax formerly characterized much of 
the instruction in grammar. This useful work has 
fallen into disrepute in some quarters largely because 
of the poor teaching to which it has been subjected. 
It has been urged, moreover, that it is pedagogically 
unsound to place the wrong form before the pupils. 
They should see and hear, so far as possible, nothing 
but the right. The phrase "so far as possible" sug- 
gests the answer to this plausible objection. In our 
modern, democratic, public school, errors of speech 
are as unpreventable as flies in an unscreened summer 
house. The analogy with this pesty insect can be 
further extended to its contagion spreading propen- 
sity. Many a child who never used "ain't" in his 
pre-scholastic experience, soon finds it a welcome ad- 
dition to his vocabulary. This contaminating influence 
of association applies with equal force to every phase 
of the "doing" side of a pupil's mentality. Errors 
of speech do and probably ever will occur, and the com- 
paratively feeble influence of a careful teacher's ex- 
ample is impotent to correct them. These errors 
should be emphatically recognized as such, the reason 
for the error pointed out clearly, and everything pos- 
sible done to focalize the pupil's attention. The only 
caution necessary is the avoidance of the exploitation 



GRAMMAR 143 

of errors which are infrequent. These should be made 
the subject of individual rather than class instruc- 
tion. The danger that poor or careless teachers may 
occasionally use such infrequent errors as class ex- 
ercises is not sufficient, however, to justify the plac- 
ing of a ban on these invaluable lessons. 

Specific Methods in Grammar. — For fear that the 
principles thus far enumerated in this chapter may 
seem too general, and in order to aid the thoughtful 
teacher in their application, a few discussions of the 
method to be used in specific grammar lessons will 
complete this chapter. The purpose of this book, as 
has been previously stated, is not to give a set of pre- 
scriptions for the teaching of detailed topics. Never- 
theless, the inclusion of some illustrative material may 
find its justification as a type method, and be not un- 
welcome to the teacher. A summing of the more im- 
portant of the above suggestions may also be helpful. 
No effective grammar teaching is possible without a 
clear idea in the teacher's mind of the aim of the les- 
son. The preponderance of one or the other of the 
various aims — disciplining, corrective, propedeutic, 
must consciously influence all the phases of the teach- 
ing process. What has been discussed under pre- 
paratory value as "theoretic" should also be con- 
sidered. There are many parts of grammar which 
while they have no distinct value in themselves are 
yet exceedingly helpful in connecting and organiz- 
ing other portions of the work. 

Next in importance to the determination of the aim 
of a specific lesson is the clear grasp on the part of the 



144 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

teacher of what she is going to teach. Any vagueness 
as to what case or tense really is, is fatal to the suc- 
cess of the lesson. To this extent teachers must be 
grammarians. Where no definite terminology has 
been set down by her superiors, she must endeavor to 
aid in the standardizing of a terminology for her own 
school at least. It is obvious that in no other way 
can grade correlation be accomplished. 

Again, the teacher must ever have in mind the im- 
portance of the preparatory stage of teaching. She 
must constantly ask herself "What knowledge may I 
safely presuppose?" This constitutes the ejective 
pursuit. Also "What part of this presupposed knowl- 
edge should be vividly recalled so that an appercep- 
tive basis may be supplied for the new lesson ? ' ' The 
failure to give due consideration to these questions is 
responsible for many failures in teaching grammar. 
If tests indicate that the class has not the requisite 
previous knowledge, the teaching of the new work must 
be deferred until such preparation is established. Be- 
laboring the previous teacher is a weariness to the 
flesh and an absolute waste of time. 

The nature and development of the grammatical 
concept must also be clearly borne in mind. The dis- 
tinction between connotation and denotation is espe- 
cially important, particularly in relation to the place 
of definition and in determining the character of ef- 
ficacious drill. 

Teaching Modifiers. — As there is practically una- 
nimity among grammarians concerning the nature of 
modifiers, the teacher need concern herself merely 



GRAMMAR 145 

with such minor differences in terminology as whether 
to call a clause used as a noun, a noun clause or a sub- 
stantive clause; whether to use the term "comple- 
ment" to include objective as well as predicate objec- 
tive modifiers, etc. As pointed out before, she should 
do her utmost to bring about uniformity in her own 
school if not in the entire city school system. 

As the aim of instruction in all grammatical analy- 
sis — of which modifiers form an essential part — is to 
facilitate the understanding of what the pupil reads 
and to supply him with an intelligible nomenclature 
for this work as well as for his written and oral lan- 
guage, it behooves the teacher definitely to keep these 
aims in view. This utilitarian value should be ap- 
parent from the very beginning of the work, or at 
least as soon as the concept of the simple modifiers 
is formed. The importance of grasping the interde- 
pendence and relationships of words and phrases in 
getting at the meaning of a passage will appeal even 
to a fifth grade pupil. 

The main presupposition for the teaching of modi- 
fiers is the pupil's knowledge of the sentence as such 
and of the two principal parts of all sentences, sub- 
ject and predicate. The sentences used should in the 
beginning invariably be in the rational order, subject 
first, predicate second. They should be well within 
the range of the pupil's comprehension as to subject 
matter, and not so striking or novel as to distract at- 
tention from the grammatical ideas to be developed. 

The nature of the concept to be formed is another 
important consideration for the teacher. A slight 



146 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

psychological examination will show that the concept 
"modifier" is so general in its application, has such 
an extensive denotation, and so rational and simple a 
connotation, that a fairly thorough-going comprehen- 
sion of the latter is by no means too difficult for a 
fifth grade pupil. It might be well to develop the idea 
at first in connection with single word modifiers, but 
phrases and clauses should soon be included in the 
work, though probably not by those names. As the 
necessary mental content is already in the pupils' 
minds awaiting classification, the developing or So- 
cratic method is particularly applicable. To take a 
specific illustration. Write on the blackboard such 
a sentence as "The horse fell." Get the pupils to 
name the subject and the predicate. Then have them 
concentrate their attention upon the subject "horse." 
Lead them by a series of questions to see that though 
"horse" is a word, it calls up in their minds a kind 
of picture. Show them that every word whose mean- 
ing they know calls up a picture in their mind. (The 
figurative and inaccurate nature of the word "pic- 
ture" here is justifiable on pedagogical grounds.) 
Write some meaningless but pronouncible letter com- 
bination, such as "glat" on the blackboard, and lead 
the class to differentiate introspectively between such 
a combination and a real word. This contrast in men- 
tal content will serve to emphasize the fact that every 
word stands for some mental ' ' picture " or " thought. ' ' 
The transition to the latter term should be made as 
soon as possible. Now, after being sure that each 
pupil has some sort of mental picture of "horse," 



GRAMMAR 147 

arouse their curiosity by telling them that you are 
going to change this picture. Rewrite the sentence, 
leaving a sufficient space between the word "the" and 
"horse," thus "The horse fell." Then write 

the word "lame" in this space. Ask what this addi- 
tional word has done to their mental picture, and they 
will readily understand that it has changed it. Give 
them the term "modifier" as synonymous with that 
which causes change. Then fix the concept by ex- 
tensive drill using a variety of simple sentences, hav- 
ing the pupils suggest different modifying words. The 
same process can then be carried out with the predi- 
cate, adding picturesque adverbs, such as ' ' sideways, ' ' 
"suddenly," etc. Phrases and clauses may be intro- 
duced as soon as sufficient drill in single word ad- 
jective and adverbial modifiers has been given. 
These phrases and clauses might be distinguished from 
words as "group" modifiers, deferring the distinc- 
tive terms for a subsequent grade. They should at 
first consist of synonymous expressions substituted 
for the adjectives or adverbs. Thus, "The lame 
horse" could become "The horse with a broken leg" 
or "The horse which was lame." 

The teacher must be on her guard against allowing 
class comprehension of the topic to lead to non-typical 
or ambiguous cases. The failure, on a large part of 
the class, to grasp these more difficult points, will in- 
evitably result in confusion and lack of confidence. 
Dullness must be prevented by well planned and ex- 
tensive variety of drill, with reference now and again 
to the real nature of the modifier as above developed. 



148 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

There will later grow out of this drill a more formal 
attitude toward the concept, which will extend its 
denotation to such unpicturesque elements as "a," 
''the," "some," etc. The connotation at the same 
time will naturally increase to include all words or 
united groups of words in sentences other than the 
simple subject and the simple predicate. This en- 
largement of the concept may be advantageously de- 
ferred until the ending of the fifth or the beginning 
of the sixth grade. 

It will not be necessary, nor, in fact, in keeping with 
the plan of this book to go into detailed consideration 
of the subsequent analytical classification of phrase 
or clause modifiers. The above discussion has been 
sufficiently protracted to serve its purpose as a type 
lesson. It might, however, be added that, from the 
corrective standpoint, the teacher should from the be- 
ginning show the necessity of contiguity between word 
and modifiers, so as to avoid ambiguity. 

The Teaching of Case. — In the teaching of case, it 
must be remembered that we have here a grammatical 
notion which is at once formal and rational. The 
teacher should have sufficient knowledge of some for- 
eign language such as German or Latin to set off 
clearly and sharply in her mind the nature of case in 
English grammar. She must appreciate the fact that 
as applied to nouns it has practically no utilitarian 
value whatever, but that as applied to pronouns it is 
indispensable to the consciously correct use of English. 
The extent to which she considers the propaedeutic 
aim will determine the form and emphasis of her in- 



GRAMMAR 149 

struction. If the study of English grammar is to 
prepare for that of German or Latin, nouns as well 
as pronouns will probably be declined. This aim may 
also lead to a less rational but better preparatory 
terminology, e. g., the use of genitive instead of pos- 
sessive, accusative instead of objective, and possibly 
dative for the indirect object. The preponderance of 
one or the other of these aims, corrective and propae- 
deutic, will exert great influence upon the method of 
teaching to be used ; and it is possible, though not al- 
ways expedient, to combine them. 

The presupposition in the teaching of case consists 
of knowledge of nouns, verbs, prepositions, pronouns, 
and the subject and object relations. Since case is so 
largely a formal distinction, the varieties of form of 
the personal pronoun constitute the most important 
denotation. For the first few months, instruction and 
drill in case should be limited to the personal pro- 
noun. The changes of form corresponding to syntac- 
tical relationships serve to emphasize this important 
formal aspect of the concept of case. A rational de- 
velopment, however, should correspond with the for- 
mal. The pupils should be led by questioning to see 
that the nominative form is used as subject, objective 
as object, and possessive showing ownership. If the 
teaching of case is begun in the seventh school year, 
the first half of the year should be limited to these 
rational relationships. Restricting the exercises to the 
personal pronoun will give the formal aspect of case 
sufficient prominence, so that when other syntactical 
uses of the nominative and objective occur, the transi- 



150 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

tion to the case concept as purely formal may be com- 
paratively easy. The application of case, other than 
the possessive, to nouns is required by many courses of 
study, probably as preparatory for the study of for- 
eign languages. It may be taught in an interesting 
way by comparing it with real noun case as shown 
in Latin, Greek, or German. A reference to noun 
case endings in old English or Anglo Saxon, with 
some historical account of the manner of their dis- 
appearance, will add interest as well as a semblance 
of rationality to the teaching of case of English 
nouns. The relative and interrogative "who" should 
be taught after sufficient practice in the personal pro- 
noun has been given. 

Enough has been said about the formal aspect of 
pronominal case to warrant the recommendation that 
paradigms of declension be learned and recited ver- 
batim. Such exercises insure the retention of the 
various forms and keep them in a definite and usable 
shape in the pupils' minds. They also serve as an ex- 
cellent preparation for similar work necessary in the 
study of foreign languages. 

The obvious utilitarian value of a knowledge of case 
plainly indicates its corrective applications. Here we 
have a good illustration of what was said above in re- 
gard to the practical use of grammatical generaliza- 
tions. The boys who habitually say "Me and him 
went" will probably later feel the social obligation of 
speaking correctly. Their knowledge that the pro- 
nouns in this sentence are nominative, being the sub- 
ject of "went," gives them a rule to which they may 



GRAMMAR 151 

refer when in doubt. The purpose of much of the 
drill in case should be corrective. In the first year 
of the teaching of this subject, examples should be 
limited to plain subject nominatives and objectives. 

Later, predicate nominatives and appositives may 
be taught and drilled upon. Frequent exercises in 
placing the proper pronouns in the blank spaces of 
sentences is an excellent plan and one which has none 
of the supposed disadvantages of placing the incor- 
rect forms before the pupils. For example, place a 
number of sentences requiring " he " or " him ' ' on the 
blackboard and have the pupils write the correct 

form. " is going away." "I saw ." 

"Mary is older than ," etc. 

Voice of Verbs. — Voice has been selected as a type 
lesson because it illustrates so well the confusion of 
ideas characteristic of modern English grammar. 
There are two fundamentally distinct notions of voice. 
Courses of study frequently indicate which of the two 
is to be taught, at the same time giving, rather incon- 
sistently, to the principal a choice of text-books taking 
the other point of view. The method of teaching this 
topic will be materially influenced by our acceptance 
of voice as (a) a property of transitive verbs alone, or 
(b) a property of all verbs. The decision will affect 
particularly the rational aspect of the teaching 
There is with voice, as with case, a prominent formal 
side, which will not be materially affected by the above 
decision. In the following discussion, the author will 
assume voice to be a property solely of transitive 
verbs, as this seems the more logical grammatical view- 



152 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

point. It is important to add, however, that the other 
way of considering voice has much to be said in its 
favor. 

We must presuppose here a knowledge of the prin- 
cipal parts of speech, of the subject-predicate relation- 
ship, the object, both verbal and prepositional, and 
the distinction between transitive and intransitive. 
The latter presupposition is absolutely essential to 
teaching voice in the sense here taken. It would not 
be necessary if we considered voice as a property of 
intransitive verbs. The definition of transitive can- 
not properly use the word object without already as- 
suming a knowledge of voice. The idea to be conveyed 
is that the action passes to a receiver. A useful part 
of the preparatory stage would consist of exercises 
in which the pupils should select transitive and in- 
transitive verbs, the former being used in both active 
and passive forms, though not so named. After this, 
the pupils might read and the teacher write upon the 
board those sentences containing transitive verbs. 
These verbs should be underlined, and the pupils' at- 
tention invited to a property which they possess and 
which the intransitive verbs lack. The name of this 
property should be given only after some elementary 
comprehension of it has been attained. 

The exercise should have been so planned that about 
half of the verbs were active and the others passive. 
Needless to say, they should be extremely simple and 
typical. Leaving the selection of sentences for such 
lessons to the spur of the moment is a hazardous 
practice for the most resourceful teacher. In each 



GRAMMAR 153 

sentence the pupils should be asked to name the doer 
and the receiver of the action. They should then be 
led to see that in some cases the subject does the act 
and in others it receives the act. A distinguishing 
mark, e. g., a small circle, might then be placed over 
each active verb and a cross over each passive verb. 
The pupils should next be asked to transform each 
sentence, without altering its meaning, changing it 
so that each doing subject becomes a receiver and each 
receiving subject a doer, and these changed forms 
again marked with circle and cross. The ability thus 
to change the verb from one form to the other is made 
an integral part of the concept and thus definitely 
excludes the intransitive verb. Pupils may be shown 
the impossibility of effecting this transformation with 
intransitive verbs, using such sentences as "The boys 
ran down the street." 

The concept may now be labeled by the term 
' ' voice ' ' and provisional definitions obtained from the 
class, the ability to change from subject doer to sub- 
ject receiver being the essential feature. Explaining 
the appropriateness of grammatical terminology may 
at times assist in the retention of a term and help to 
fix its meaning. The advisability of such a procedure 
must be determined by considering the real benefit 
derived from it. The significance of the term voice 
is perhaps too far-fetched to be properly taught in this 
manner. Not so, however, with the terms active and 
passive. The former word is probably already in the 
pupils' vocabulary and its appropriateness will be 
readily grasped. The term passive will perhaps re- 



154 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

quire teaching. This is advisable not only on account 
of its grammatical significance, but because it will be 
a useful addition to the pupils' general vocabulary. 
The word should be used in a great variety of con- 
texts, looked up in the dictionary, and recorded in the 
pupils' individual note books. ' ' The child was carried 
up stairs ' ' contrasted with ' ' The child carried her doll 
up stairs" well illustrates the passivity and activity of 
the child. Numerous illustrations of this character 
should be given. 

The caution should be repeated here that it is neces- 
sary to keep all illustrations simple and typical. 
There is no bounden obligation upon the teacher to 
explain every verb which occurs in a language pas- 
sage. Such class explanations are not even justified by 
questions from the brighter pupils, who may very 
wisely be told to come to the teacher after school 
hours for individual instruction. Such a suggestion 
should, however, be given in a spirit of encouraging 
commendation and not rebuke. Sometimes, too, these 
questions are only the natural outcome of an osten- 
tatious desire of the pupils to hear themselves talk, a 
propensity to which there seems to be no age or sex 
limit. Whatever the motive of the question, it is ob- 
viously wrong to waste the time of the class and cause 
mental confusion by discussing complex matters be- 
yond the comprehension of the average pupil. Sen- 
tences in which the participial portion of the passive 
verb may be construed as a predicate adjective, or in 
which the phrase containing the doer of the act must 
be supplied should certainly be avoided in the begin- 



GRAMMAR 155 

ning and perhaps throughout the elementary course. 
It would be the height of folly, for instance, to analyze 
such a sentence as "The boy was known to his class- 
mates but unknown to his teachers." There is per- 
haps a real place in school work for exercising the 
puzzle instinct, but confusion is certain to follow its 
application to grammar teaching. The reader who 
has had any teaching experience will doubtless pardon 
the protracted repetition of the caution contained in 
this paragraph. One could preach from now to dooms- 
day without eradicating the evil. 

After the concept of voice has been adequately de- 
veloped in the above rational way, emphasis should be 
laid on the formal side. The method of constructing 
passive forms should be pointed out, particularly the 
use of the participle instead of the preterit. The ob- 
vious corrective applications of this aspect of the sub- 
ject should form a basis for considerable drill. Sen- 
tences with the participle omitted should be placed on 
the blackboard to be filled in by the pupils. A con- 
siderable knowledge of preterits and past participles 
of irregular verbs is a necessary presupposition of this 
work. Drill in conjugation both active and passive 
assumes importance, when we consider the propae- 
deutic value of English grammar. From no other 
point of view — if we except the verb "to be" — is it 
justifiable in the elementary school. 

Tense. — The proper teaching of tense again illus- 
trates the necessity for the teacher to make up her 
mind definitely as to what grammatical tense really is. 
As in so many parts of grammar there is the formal 



156 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

as well as the rational side. Considered from the 
standpoint of its propaedeutic value, the formal side 
is the more important. However desirable it might be, 
there is some doubt as to the practicability of a uni- 
form terminology for tense in the various modern and 
classical languages. The wisest course for the teacher 
in consultation with the principal, if given any choice 
in the matter, is to select a grammar text-book which 
seems to present a logical and teachable treatment, 
and follow it faithfully. At the same time, all live 
teachers and supervising authorities owe it to their 
profession to aid in the attainment of a uniform 
terminology for English grammar at least. 

No further presupposition for the teaching of tense 
is necessary than the knowledge of the verb in its 
general nature as indicating action and the distinc- 
tion of time as present, past, and future. The latter 
consideration should perhaps be included as the prin- 
cipal factor of the preparatory stage of the teaching. 
The words "present" and "past" are probably "old 
friends" in the pupils' vocabulary. The w T ord "fu- 
ture" though likely an "acquaintance" should 
become thoroughly familiar. In fact, the concept 
"time," regarding as its connotation the three ele- 
ments present, past, and future, might well be made 
the subject of an introductory lesson. Oral and writ- 
ten language work on this theme will be found an 
interesting method of fixing the concept. Such con- 
siderations as what the pupils can remember of their 
past lives, what aspirations they have for the future, 
and accounts of their present home and school life 



GRAMMAR 157 

suggest appropriate topics. Emphasis on the words 
present, past, and future should accompany these ex- 
ercises. 

The fact that a verb can show by its form whether 
the action is present, past, or future should then be 
stated by the teacher, no mention whatever being made 
of the word tense. The curiosity of the pupils would 
thus be aroused as to how verb changes could accom- 
plish this end. Typical sentences, in which the same 
verb is used to indicate the different time ideas, should 
be placed upon the blackboard, and the pupils should 
point out and make lists of the different forms. To 
indicate present time, the progressive form — not so 
named however — should preferably be employed. It 
has the advantage of clearly emphasizing the time 
idea. "I am writing" is unequivocably present in its 
significance, while "I write" can and generally does 
express mere ability. The past and future, however, 
present no similar difficulty. In fact, examples should 
be given of the various tense forms of the indicative 
mode, though only the threefold time significance 
should be mentioned by the teacher or required from 
the pupils. 

After a month's drill in such exercises, the pupil is 
ready for the word "tense" as a formal label. The 
term should be introduced after the distinction be- 
tween ordinary past and present perfect has been de- 
veloped. The need of a terminology will then be ap- 
parent to the pupils. The three compound tenses of 
the indicative mode can also be taught as rational time 
distinctions and related to their designations as action 



158 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

completed in the present — present perfect, completed 
in the past — past perfect, and to be completed in the 
future — future perfect. The recognition of these 
tenses by their form and the proper auxiliaries to be 
used in their construction soon becomes the essential 
part of the work. Instruction and drill in the tenses 
of the indicative mode can wisely be given in con- 
nection, of course, with other grammar work, an en- 
tire term. 

The proper use of ivill and shall, and of the preterit 
and past participle constitutes the principal correc- 
tional application of the first work in tense. The fu- 
ture auxiliaries are peculiarly difficult, although much 
practice in the correct forms should precede the in- 
struction. Practice and precept combined, however, 
often fail to bring about the desired result. Nil des- 
perandum must be the teacher's watchword. It is 
quite possible that colloquial disregard for the dis- 
tinction of will and shall may eventually destroy it. 
This destruction unfortunately is not yet accomplished, 
and the teacher must ever be a conservative barrier 
against all so-called corrupting influences. The cor- 
rect formation of the perfect tenses of the common 
verbs see, go, come, write, etc., will also test the 
average teacher's patience and ingenuity. The con- 
ventional value of success here demands that she leave 
no stone unturned to accomplish lasting results. 
Variety of drill and vigilant correction will do much. 

The tenses formed with may, can, must, could, 
should, ivould, etc. — sometimes called the potential 
mode — must be taught in a purely formal way. The 



GRAMMAR 159 

same is true of the subjunctive and infinitive forms. 
In fact the formal side of the tense concept may well 
assume prime importance when drill in conjugation is 
begun. Even in the indicative mode, the so-called 
present tense frequently indicates future time. The 
correct use of the auxiliaries, e. g., may and can, forms 
the principal correctional aspect of the subsequent ex- 
ercises in tense. 

A Caution. — As indicated several times, it is by no 
means the purpose of this book to present detailed 
lessons in the various topics. Even if this procedure 
were deemed desirable, the size of the work would 
make it decidedly unwieldy. The aim is rather to 
arouse interest in method and render teachers thought- 
ful. Where detailed advice is suggested, it must be 
taken for what it is worth. Such suggestions are often 
most valuable when they lead the teacher to do some- 
thing else. The only point is that whatever she does 
should be planned and definitely thought out, not mere 
haphazard, nor servile imitation. The specific lessons 
of this chapter were included so as to clarify and il- 
lustrate some general principles which seemed impor- 
tant. It is quite likely that a thoughtful teacher may 
disagree with the method of presentation here dis- 
cussed, and if she does, her way is quite as apt to be 
right as that given above. In fact it is almost sure 
to be, for after all, teaching is an art and method 
largely individual or personal. We must never over- 
look, however, the importance of the principles in- 
volved in our teaching, and we should ever be ready to 
give a rational explanation of our methods. 



CHAPTER IX 
ARITHMETIC 

Place of Arithmetic. — Arithmetic holds a unique 
position in modern elementary education. Despite ex- 
perimental research and pedagogic criticism, this sub- 
ject remains a sort of idol before which our teachers 
bow in reverential worship. In many schools, arith- 
metic still monopolizes the freshest, brightest morning 
period, hopelessly crowding out such minor subjects 
as reading, grammar, and science. When a pupil from 
another city applies for admission to a school, his 
grading is frequently made to depend almost entirely 
upon his arithmetical ability. If he fails to attain a 
certain average in the term examination in this one 
subject, he is often forced to repeat the whole term's 
work. Educators and the general public are both re- 
sponsible for this condition. The former have laid 
great stress on the value of arithmetic as mental train- 
ing, the latter have been particularly impressed by its 
utilitarian value. A detailed discussion of these and 
other claims will be necessary in order to give the 
teacher an attitude toward the subject which will in- 
sure aimful teaching. 

Arithmetic as Mental Training. — Arithmetic has 
long been regarded — and the opinion is still rife — as 

160 



ARITHMETIC 161 

an excellent mental gymnastic. The doctrine of for- 
mal discipline has been wont to employ this subject 
as chief witness for the defense. Accepting this doc- 
trine in the modified form discussed in Chapter II., 
there is much to be said in favor of the value of arith- 
metic as mental training, particularly in regard to the 
creation of an ideal of accuracy. The correction of a 
solution is in itself sufficiently disagreeable to serve 
as an inhibition on carelessness. Used as a text by 
the teacher and applied to similar situations in other 
subjects as well as to life, there will tend to be formed 
a morally tinged concept of accuracy. Again, the ab- 
solute distinction of correct and incorrect is perhaps 
emphasized more strongly in arithmetic than in any 
other subject of the curriculum. "Almost right" 
tends to identify itself with "wrong" in the pupil's 
mind. This furnishes a striking analogy to the ab- 
soluteness characteristic of morality. The apprecia- 
tion of this analogy, however, cannot safely be left to 
mere unconscious assimilation by the pupil. It must 
be brought out with a definiteness as emphatic as pos- 
sible. 

The so-called discipline of difficulty need take but 
little of our attention. There is no doubt that the 
overcoming of difficulties indicates the possession of a 
strong mental fibre. It is by no means equally cer- 
tain that such overcoming will produce this strength. 
Surely it is unwise to place obstacles in the pupil's 
path. Difficulties in sufficient variety and number 
will appear in the usual course. When it is argued 
that intrinsically difficult and dull exercises have pro- 



162 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

duced strong mental types, it is perhaps but another 
way of saying that none but natively strong minds 
have been able to survive. 

The training in attention, abstraction, and reasoning 
attributed to arithmetic is to be admitted merely so 
far as implied in the two ideals discussed above, ac- 
curacy and moral absoluteness. The teacher can aid, 
so far, for example, as attention is concerned, by show- 
ing its importance as a factor in the attainment of 
accuracy. Except in so far as the organization and 
fixing of ideas of relationship are included, as in 
grammar, it cannot be maintained that arithmetic 
trains either reasoning or abstraction. It seems, on 
the whole, that the value of arithmetic as mental train- 
ing has been vaguely understood and greatly exag- 
gerated. 

Utilitarian Value. — To the general public, arithme- 
tic makes a specifically utilitarian appeal. The par- 
ent is proud to know that schooling has enabled his 
child to compute the proper change out of a quarter 
when he sends him for a five cent cake of soap, or that 
he can determine the cost of five and a half yards 
of silk at ten cents a yard. The parent is not a peda- 
gogue, and he attributes in a vague way similar practi- 
cal functions to the entire arithmetic course. The pub- 
lic fails to realize the painfully static conservatism of 
modern educational practice. It is scarcely believable 
that business methods hundreds of years old are taught 
in many schools today. They have rooted themselves 
so firmly that eradication becomes a slow and painful 
process. Even when modern thought forces changes 



ARITHMETIC 163 

in courses of study, teachers show a remarkable ten- 
dency to cling to the old practices. It occurs not 
infrequently that the theoretic pendulum swings back 
and gives to the old-fashioned immutable teacher ap- 
parent justification for her changeless methods. It is 
possible that the expression "Divine Profession" as 
applied to teaching may find some extenuation in the 
immutability characteristic of many teachers. 

The outlook for a real utilitarianism is hopeful. 
Ever so much useless matter has been eliminated from 
recent syllabi in arithmetic, and will in course of time 
disappear even from the class room. This elimination 
has included many old-fashioned business methods, 
such as compound partnership and equation of pay- 
ments, and also such technical matters as troy weight 
and apothecaries' weight whose application to practical 
life is narrowed to a few trades or professions. Much 
still remains, however, which could be wisely dispensed 
with. It is intrenched not only in tradition but also 
fortifies itself behind the vague ramparts of mental 
training. Much complicated work in absurd fractions, 
for instance, still forms a part of the course in worry. 
The ability to handle such fractions will not be re- 
quired of more than one man in ten thousand, yet con- 
siderable time is still wasted on work of this character. 
For all practical purposes, decimals have supplanted 
fractions, and the school, in so far as it endeavors to 
make its aim utilitarian, should conform to the prac- 
tice of the business world. Simple logarithmic tables 
would also constitute a welcome addition to the course 
in elementary mathematics. The applications of log- 



164 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

arithms are so manifold that it would seem, even if 
only from the conventional standpoint, wrong to allow 
a child to quit school in total ignorance of this wonder- 
ful mathematical tool. 

Courses in commercial arithmetic given in many 
business colleges attempt to approximate actual 
modern business processes. The elementary school 
might profitably follow their example. A knowledge 
of the proper way of making out checks, promissory 
notes, bills, receipts, etc., is a useful asset for the 
ordinary man or woman. There is absolutely as little 
excuse for the school teaching such forms in an anti- 
quated way as there was for the "up-country" Penn- 
sylvania farmer to continue voting, until a very recent 
date, for Andrew Jackson as president. It is not only 
easy but interesting for the teacher to acquaint her- 
self with simple modern forms. 

It is hoped that the above discussion will not con- 
vey an impression of the inutility of arithmetic. Much 
of the arithmetic taught in our schools today has really 
practical value, although probably the greater part 
has not. It is important therefore that the teacher 
should appreciate this distinction and although she 
is, as a rule, required to teach the letter of the sylla- 
bus, she should endeavor in every way possible to em- 
phasize the practical applications of her teaching, 
realizing the fact that it is only in this way that she 
can give life to a subject frequently inanimately dull. 
Again, to the extent that every teacher should aspire 
to be also an educator, she must have a critical atti- 
tude toward courses of study in arithmetic, especially 



ARITHMETIC 165 

toward those topics which, once utilitarian, are tradi- 
tionally retained — static inertia being the most tremen- 
dous force in education — on account of their supposed 
disciplinary value. By formal and informal discus- 
sion, written and oral, the earnest teacher may help 
considerably in the rationalizing of the elementary 
course in arithmetic. 

The Propaedeutic Value of Arithmetic. — So far as 
preparation for higher educational work is concerned, 
arithmetic obviously has considerable value. The 
mathematics form a chain, whose initial and most im- 
portant link is arithmetic. Equal importance, how- 
ever, from this point of view, does not attach to all 
parts of the elementary course. Much, for example, 
that is avowedly utilitarian, is of no value for the pur- 
suit of algebra, geometry, or the higher mathematics. 

The portion of arithmetic which is of especial im- 
portance as propedeutic for higher work, relates al- 
most entirely to abstract operations in number. To 
teach these adequately from the viewpoint of this 
paragraph, there is required a rather different method 
from that demanded by a purely utilitarian aim. 
From the latter standpoint, quickness and accuracy 
in the manipulation of figures is the desideratum. 
Such facility, though not undesirable, is by no means 
essential to arithmetic as the beginning of a complete 
mathematical course. Here there appears much more 
prominently the necessity of understanding the pro- 
cess ; the pupils should be able to multiply numbers ac- 
curately if you will, but more than this they should 
have a clear grasp of the mathematical nature of mul- 



166 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

tiplication. Arithmetical ideas and processes are to 
be developed and taught in such a manner that a 
foundation may be laid for mathematics in general. 

The "How and the Why." — The above discussion of 
the value of arithmetic will establish a viewpoint , 
for a difficult question which often confronts the 
teacher of elementary arithmetic, viz: In teaching 
this or that topic, shall I fully explain the reason 
for the process — the "why"; or shall I be content 
with securing proficiency in performing the opera - 
ation — the "how"? The specific aim of any lesson — 
utilitarian or propaedeutic — will exert considerable in- 
fluence on the answer to this question. Even in those 
cases, however, where the value of a lesson is pre- 
dominantly utilitarian, it does not follow that the 
"why" of a process is unnecessary. We must not 
forget the importance of mental organization both for 
the apperceptive grasp and for the usable retention 
of knowledge. There is, as a rule, no better set of 
associations to secure these ends than those mental 
connections which make for the comprehension of a 
topic. The necessity for drill and repetition is in- 
versely as the strength and solidarity of such con- 
nections. 

There are, however, some arithmetical processes, 
the demonstration of whose correctness is too abstruse 
for the elementary pupil. It by no means follows 
that the teaching of such operations should be de- 
ferred until the pupil is mature enough to compre- 
hend the reasons for them. A fourth year child, for 
instance, who is compelled by an antiquated course 



ARITHMETIC 167 

of study to reduce enormous fractions, should be priv- 
ileged to employ the continuous division method of 
finding the greatest common divisor. The attempt to 
demonstrate this method to young children would 
be a pedagogical absurdity. The vast majority of 
us use watches with absolute innocence of their mech- 
anism, so the old sea captain with no training in the 
intricacies of electrical science steers his course by the 
magnetic needle. These analogies apply, with dimin- 
ished force however, to arithmetic. 

We may perhaps safely generalize to this extent: 
The reason for an arithmetical process should always 
be given when its comprehension is well within the 
range of the pupils' minds. It will then help him 
to organize his knowledge and insure retention of 
the process. When, however, the reason for an opera- 
tion is too intricate for the pupils' grasp, the demon- 
stration should be omitted. In its place should be 
given proofs of the correctness of the result so as 
to inspire confidence in the minds of the pupils as 
well as to give them a method of testing the accuracy 
of their work. This forms a kind of specific demon- 
stration, which should, however, be carefully distin- 
guished from real mathematical demonstration. 

Conventional and Rational Arithmetic. — A distinc- 
tion, to some extent resembling that between arbitrary 
and rational spelling, applies to arithmetic. It will 
be discussed here briefly so as to fix these designa- 
tions in the mind of the reader. The term ' ' rational ' ' 
may be applied to those parts of arithmetic in which 
reasons for processes are made clear to the pupils. 



168 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

That twice three are six, for example, is a purely 
rational process. The term "conventional" is applied 
to such a fact as that there are twelve inches in a 
foot, or that the usual rate of interest is six per 
cent, etc. Many arithmetical operations contain both 
rational and conventional elements, e. g., such a prob- 
lem as ' ' Two feet are how many inches ? ' ' 

The general principles underlying the teaching of 
rational arithmetic have been touched on above and 
will be more fully discussed later. Practically the 
same psychological considerations as were found ap- 
plicable to the teaching of arbitrary spelling also ap- 
ply to conventional arithmetic. The intensity of 
acquisition derived from interesting presentation com- 
bined with drill must supply the place of organized 
concatenations of reasoning. Practical applications 
of the knowledge attained will constitute an important 
factor of the fixing process. The interesting presen- 
tation will naturally take the form largely of ob- 
jective work, which will also serve the purpose of 
rendering more obvious the relation of the knowledge 
to the living interests of the pupils. Liquid meas- 
ure, for example, demands for its proper teaching 
that the children should be shown the actual measures, 
gallon, quart, pint, and gill and should also be given 
the opportunity of using them. That a quart equals 
two pints will thus become not a merely verbal asso- 
ciation, but a real perceptive fact, the seeing and 
handling of the measures adding interest and at least 
a glimpse of utility. 

Verbal methods of instruction in conventional arith- 



ARITHMETIC 169 

metic show a persistency which is often discouraging 
to the principal who also happens to be an educator. 
Nothing but the conscientious application of thor- 
oughly understood psychological principles will ever 
eradicate such ineffective teaching. The use of ob- 
jective methods merely in obedience to orders of a 
superior authority is well nigh hopeless. Verbal 
methods of instruction will, however, probably en- 
dure at least as long as term examinations test only 
verbal retention. In preparing their pupils for such 
examinations, teachers too often feel that the time 
spent in objective work constitutes a roundabout 
method of securing a result, more easily attained by 
verbal exercises. They often fail to realize that the 
verbal result itself is most surely secured by the in- 
tensity of objective presentation. 

Rational Mathematics an Abstract Science. — The use 
of objects in connection with rational mathematics 
differs considerably from its employment as a medium 
of conventional arithmetic. The concept of number 
is essentially abstract, and all real arithmetical reason- 
ing involves number ideas more or less thoroughly 
divorced from the concrete. The influence of Pes- 
talozzi has tended to obscure this undoubted fact. In 
developing the abstract notion of number, objects 
are necessary at first. A wise choice of varied ob- 
jects assists in building up the idea. These objects, 
however, should not be so entertaining and striking 
as to distract the pupils' attention from the essen- 
tials of the number concept. Five chocolate cookies 
on each child's desk, for instance, just before the noon 



170 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

recess, would be an unwise material equipment for 
developing the number five. Little sticks, pebbles, 
bits of chalk, etc., are decidedly more advisable. The 
use of any objects should be discontinued as soon as 
the teacher feels that the number idea is sufficiently 
grasped. One argument against the natural and 
otherwise innocent use of the fingers in counting is 
that nothing short of amputation constitutes a sure 
cure for the habit. 

In both oral and written work, especially the 
former, mathematical reasoning is apt to be seriously 
impeded by an insistence on constant repetition of 
concrete denominations. In solving such a problem, 
for example, as "John had five marbles and found 
eleven more. He then lost eight. How many were 
left?", it is not only permissible but mathematically 
desirable that the pupil should respond in some such 
way as "Five and eleven are sixteen. Sixteen minus 
eight are eight. He had eight marbles left." The 
repetition of the word marbles in each case would be 
unpedagogical as mathematical training and stilted 
as a form of oral expression. In written work, as 
in written language in general, more formality may 
be desired. In the reasoning that precedes the writ- 
ten solution, however, the denominations may gener- 
ally be omitted. 

Self -Activity in Arithmetic. — The need of self-activ- 
ity for the comprehension of arithmetic and mathe- 
matics in general is perhaps greater than it was found 
to be in the case of grammar. "Teach the pupils 
to think" is a maxim that applies with especial force 



ARITHMETIC 171 

to arithmetic. This end can be attained only by a 
slow but sure laying of foundations. In the first 
place, the pupil must have thorough and absolute 
knowledge of the elementary sums, differences, prod- 
ucts, and quotients. The thought processes involved 
in even simple problems are seriously impeded by 
any uncertainty regarding these fundamental ele- 
ments. Initial work with objects, followed by drill, 
drill, drill, must fix these factors, although self-ac- 
tivity is necessarily brought into play in their com- 
prehension. As a boy, the author sang the multi- 
plication table day after day in concert drills. 
Whether pedagogically sound or not, he has never 
regretted this feature of his schooling. Promptness, 
as well as accuracy of response must be the goal of 
the primary teacher's ambition. So important is the 
attainment of this end that almost any moral means 
are justifiable. Recently, in some localities, the mul- 
tiplication table has been greatly simplified by omit- 
ting the eleven and twelve times products. This is 
a well advised reform, although it necessitates an 
apparently longer procedure in multiplication and 
division by eleven and twelve. This longer proced- 
ure, however, applies rather to the space required 
than to the time consumed in these operations. 

Once a sure grasp of the elementary results is se- 
cured, there are afforded various opportunities for 
self-active processes demanded by the uncertainty of 
the teacher's ejective knowledge, as well as by the 
necessity of mental organization. There is no doubt 
that the teacher's solution of a problem will differ 



172 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

at least in speed and emphasis from that of the pu- 
pils. She may explain a problem never so well and 
still proceed too fast for some of the pupils, too 
slowly for others. Or she may lay the emphasis on 
elements which some understand thoroughly and omit 
it from elements which others fail to comprehend. 
Of course, much individual teaching will at times be 
necessary, but the wise private tutor as well as the 
teacher of fifty pupils must realize the importance of 
the pupil working out the problems himself. There 
are some teachers who pride themselves on their abil- 
ity as instructors in arithmetic, whose procedure is 
fundamentally unpedagogic. In the event of a class 
failure, e. g., to solve a problem which they were sup- 
posedly prepared for, such teachers frequently admin- 
ister a scolding mixed with a little sarcasm, and then 
fully solve the problem on the blackboard, clearly an- 
nouncing the reason for each separate step. To this 
wasteful process they give the name explanation. 
When it is finished, they turn to the class, generously 
offering to repeat the "explanation" if any point is 
not understood. Of course, no self-respecting pupil 
could make such a request without abject humilia- 
tion and implied criticism of the teacher. The class 
politely assumes an attitude of reverent gratitude, and 
the teacher pats herself on the back complacently. 
Perchance, the same problem is immediately assigned 
with a mere change of figures. Nearly all the pupils 
now solve it correctly and the teacher's benediction 
closes the service ! 

The essential fault of the above method is seen as 



ARITHMETIC 173 

soon as the true nature of explanation as a form of 
deductive reasoning is understood, and when it is 
borne in mind that arithmetic is a deductive science. 
The former point was referred to in Chapter II. 
Real explanation involves the inclusion of the fact 
to be explained under some general principle or law 
already in the pupil's mind. The detailed solution 
of a problem, as described in the preceding para- 
graph, may contain practically no true explanation 
at all. The proper course for the teacher whose class 
has thus failed is, first of all, to determine the cause 
of such failure. It may be found that most of the 
pupils have failed to grasp some principle involved. 
In such a case, explanation must await the develop- 
ment of this principle. Simple exercises, in which 
the principle stands out prominently, should then 
form the preparatory stage for reattempting the so- 
lution of the problem. Or it may be that while the 
necessary principles are sufficiently understood, there 
is a failure to appreciate the particular case as an 
application of the principle. In such an event the 
wise teacher will find it advisable to give the class 
practice in a simple series of graded applications of 
the principle, much of the work being oral. 

This self-active procedure may be made clearer by 
an illustration. Suppose the class is required to as- 
certain how many yards of paper, two yards wide, 
are necessary to cover a wall of certain dimensions. 
If the teacher finds, upon examination of the solu- 
tion, a general failure to grasp the principle that 
the length of a rectangle can be secured by dividing 



174 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

its area by its width, she will proceed to develop this 
principle by means of objective illustration, drawing 
upon the board simple rectangles, five inches by two, 
eight by three, seven by two, then by a series of ques- 
tions leading the pupils to state the principle them- 
selves. The universal application of the principle 
may then be stated in the form of a rule; e. g., area 
divided by width equals length. Or the class failure 
may be due, not to ignorance of the principle, but 
to failure to grasp the fact that the paper cut in 
strips actually constitutes one long rectangle, two 
yards wide. This can be led up to by similar ob- 
jective illustrations, a series of simple rectangles of 
identical width and length being drawn upon the 
board, and then the series redrawn as a continuous 
rectangle with vertical lines equally dividing it into 
the requisite number of strips. Two or three lessons 
of this character, first oral, and gradually increasing 
in difficulty, may be necessary before the original 
problem is again attempted. Such self-active work 
may seem prodigal of time to the ordinary teacher, 
but its psychological soundness and practical results 
in increased pupil efficiency render it in the best 
sense economical. 

Arithmetical Knowledge as Power. — The reforms of 
modern courses render it increasingly possible to em- 
ploy practical applications as an effective means of 
fixing knowledge of arithmetic. "Whatever the pupil 
can turn to some useful account touches his living 
interests and thus holds his attention. Not only the 
process itself, but everything connected with it ac- 



ARITHMETIC 175 

quires a firmer hold on the pupil's mind. The au- 
thor can never forget a lesson in the chemistry of 
putrefaction which is worthy of repetition in this con- 
nection. The teacher had described Pasteur's investi- 
gations proving the necessity of oxygen to the life 
of putrefactive germs and the application of this dis- 
covery to the canning of meats and vegetables. He 
explained the method of canning and urged the im- 
portance of the total expulsion of air before sealing. 
When this expulsion has been imperfect, the ends of 
the can are likely to bulge, when perfect, they are 
often concave. "Now," added the instructor, "when 
your mother sends you for a can of tomatoes, you 
know what kind to pick out ! " I doubt whether any 
boy of that class has ever forgotten the principal 
facts of that lesson. The possibility of practically ap- 
plying arithmetical knowledge should exert a constant 
influence upon the teacher in her selection of prob- 
lems. At the same time, correlation may often be 
secured with other curricular subjects, e. g., the num- 
ber of days Columbus consumed in his first voyage 
and the distance traveled form interesting data for a 
problem in ascertaining his average daily distance. A 
similar average may be obtained for a modern ocean 
liner and the ratio of the two in fraction or per- 
centage be determined. The percentage of the various 
ingredients of alcoholic beverages may be used to ef- 
fect a similar correlation with temperance hygiene. 
The teacher could profitably record in a note book a 
series of such problems, either original or culled from 
various sources, which would form a splendid asset 



176 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

for her arithmetical teaching. In addition, problems 
involving actual measurements of school room, build- 
ing, and yard will suggest themselves to the thought- 
ful teacher, once she has realized the all important 
principle of knowledge as power with all its peda- 
gogical implications. 

The Stage of Preparation. — The discussion of the 
preceding paragraph has a valuable application to 
the step of preparation. There is perhaps no better 
way of securing a state of expectant attention than 
by creating in the mind of the pupil a felt need for 
the instruction. In some educational discussions, this 
device is included in the statement of the aim. How- 
ever considered, it is of supreme importance. The 
lesson is interestedly awaited and the pupils' curios- 
ity is aroused. The resultant mental attitude is ren- 
dered vitally receptive, as apperceptive systems are 
vividly formed, lacking only the completive element 
which is to be supplied by the coming lesson. 

The question of the extent of the knowledge already 
possessed by the pupil is as important for instruction 
in arithmetic as in grammar. What the teacher has 
the right to presuppose must be borne definitely in 
mind. If certain parts of this previous knowledge are 
of particular importance in connection with the new 
work, these parts should be actively recalled so that 
the vividness of recency may add its influence to the 
ideas. 

Short Cuts. — As could be gathered from the forego- 
ing discussion, abbreviated processes of work in arith- 
metic may or may not be desirable. If the aim is the 



ARITHMETIC 177 

comprehension of a general rule, our previous psycho- 
logical considerations will have proved conclusively 
"The more haste the less speed." When, however, 
the aim is narrowly utilitarian, and the demonstration 
of the process unessential or intricate, "short cut" 
methods are permissible. Even here it may sometimes 
happen that the teacher can ill afford to dispense with 
the retentive value of mental organization. In teach- 
ing the six per cent method of computing interest, e. 
g., — "Multiply dollars by days, divide by six, point off 
three decimal places, ' ' a simple algebraic derivation of 
the rule is helpful. So in multiplying by twenty-five 
— add two ciphers and divide by four. The latter 
rule is a good illustration of a short cut method 
which is often useful on the occasions where rapid men- 
tal calculation is demanded. The trouble with many 
so called "short cut" methods is that they add one 
other topic to an already overburdened course. They 
are justifiable only on a strictly utilitarian basis. 

Arithmetical Analysis. — The designation "Arithmet- 
ical Analysis" is often narrowly applied to a rather 
formal method of solving problems using the unit as a 
basis. The term mental arithmetic was frequently 
given to the purely mental solution of such problems. 
This designation was not clear nor descriptive — all 
mathematical solutions are mental — and it has grad- 
ually gone out of use. Together with the obsolescence 
of the term has passed also its vogue, a result due, as 
might be expected, to the extremes to which the prac- 
tice had gone. Pupils were often required to re-state 
after a single hearing a complicated problem and then 



178 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

solve it promptly without the aid of any written work. 
The believers in formal discipline — and their name 
was legion some decades since — urged as justification 
for such exercises training of attention, memory, and 
reasoning. At the same time, it was held that they 
afforded an excellent opportunity for training in pre- 
cision of language. These claims may all be accepted 
as true but in a sense so modified from that in the 
minds of the original champions as to amount to an 
entirely different thing. 

Written analysis where the numbers are too large 
for purely mental computation, and oral analysis of 
simple problems form excellent means of mathematical 
training. The analysis, however, must not always 
base itself on unity as one, but rather on that unity 
which amounts to common measure or unit of compar- 
ison. When the numbers to be compared are, e. g., 
three and five, one becomes the natural unit; when, 
however, the numbers are nine and twenty-seven, nine 
is the natural unit. The old "mental arithmetic" did 
not give sufficient attention to this very helpful dis- 
tinction. 

There is but little doubt that arithmetical analysis 
holds its place in the modern curriculum on account of 
its disciplinary value. To the extent that we interpret 
this as the building up of ideas of relationship, there 
can be no quarrel with this view. Practically, how- 
ever, the actual appeal of many problems to the puz- 
zle instinct has kept up the pupils' interest in such 
work, while the so-called ' ' discipline of difficulties ' ' has 
supplied the strongest argument for the teacher. 



ARITHMETIC 179 

There is great danger of allowing such disciplinary 
work in "pure" arithmetic to go to an extreme. The 
adjective "pure" as applied to mathematics in general 
too often signifies a kind of subject-matter which, so 
far as the pupil can see, has no application to any- 
thing. No wonder that teachers find this subject so 
difficult to teach and that so many pupils fail. Mathe- 
matical curiosity per se does exist, but it is compara- 
tively rare. When the average pupil hears that two- 
thirds of the lid weighs four-fifths as much as the ket- 
tle, his wildest flight of imagination fails to reveal to 
him a situation in life where this computation would 
be necessary, and like the na'ive country lawyer, he is 
disposed to say ' ' I don 't have to prove it. I admit it. ' ' 

Kept within reasonable limits, and given real utili- 
tarian applications, arithmetical analysis is a valuable 
part of the arithmetic course. It represents a kind of 
reasoning which must frequently be employed in the 
solution of problems. Its value stands out most con- 
spicuously in oral exercises. Used in written work, 
the teacher should demand the formality character- 
istic of written work in general. Conciseness of state- 
ment must be insisted upon. It is perhaps sufficient 
to refer casually to the fact that, so far as training 
in written language is concerned, there are many sub- 
jects which could be named at random which form 
much more felicitous themes than arithmetical analy- 
sis. 

Oral Arithmetic. — By oral arithmetic, I mean the dis- 
pensing with written aids in the solution of problems. 
The pupil hears the problem and thinks out the solu- 



180 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

tion which he expresses or recites orally. This has 
the advantages and disadvantages of all oral work. 
If handled properly, the former outweigh the latter. 
One peculiar advantage of oral arithmetic consists in 
the fact that the teacher is restricted to the use of 
small numbers, and thus the attention of the pupil 
is concentrated upon the principle involved. There is 
probably entirely too little oral recitation of arith- 
metic in our schools today. Although the analogy is 
not thorough-going, oral arithmetic has about the same 
relation to written arithmetic that oral language has 
to written language. Much arithmetical work can 
profitably be taken up orally at first. The symbolism 
of mathematics is however much more abstract than 
that of ordinary language, so that a great deal more 
objective work is necessary. Beyond possibly the first 
four or five numbers, the child has no definite mathe- 
matical vocabulary whatever. The teacher therefore 
cannot rest satisfied with the association between the 
visual and oral symbols as in the case of the simple 
sight words of primary reading. 

What is sometimes called rapid arithmetic has its 
place in the curriculum on account of its utilitarian 
value. The vocational man must not only have ac- 
curate knowledge of processes like three-eighths of 
forty but he should be able to give an answer promptly. 
Requiring rapid answers to simple problems in the 
class room is a means of securing such promptness. 
This result is not to be accounted for by the myster- 
ious training of any mental faculty, but is due to the 
drill furnished by such exercises, and the creation 



ARITHMETIC 181 

of an ideal of prompt, attentive work, aroused by the 
teacher's frequent demand for quick responses. It is 
this latter consideration which is by far the most im- 
portant. This psychological analysis may seem pe- 
dantic to the ordinary reader, but it is really a vital 
factor of the teacher 's attitude toward her work. The 
teacher must be conscious of the mental processes of 
her pupils, if she hopes to aid their development. 

Specific Method. — As it was found desirable to con- 
clude the chapter on grammar with specific applica- 
tions of the general principles discussed, so the same 
plan will be followed in this chapter. The reader will 
pardon my repetition of the caution previously given. 
A suggested method is not like a paper pattern which 
a dressmaker uses in cutting out a dress. It is rather 
an inspiration to the teacher to have a definite aim 
and to think out carefully the means best adapted to 
its attainment. No two real teachers will use identical 
methods, nor will the same teacher use the same 
method at all times. 

The Teaching of Square Measure. — In the teaching of 
square measure, the aim is absolutely utilitarian, so 
that from the very beginning its practical applications 
should stand out clearly. It is conventional only in 
so far as it is derived from long measure, its relation 
to which however, — with the exception of the acre — 
is purely rational. Long measure is one of the pre- 
suppositions of the teaching as is a knowledge of the 
fundamental operations, including some work in frac- 
tions. 

The stage of preparation will consist largely of 



182 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

creating an attitude of expectant attention based on the 
need for the knowledge. It will also include a review 
of long measure with especial reference to units of 
measurement, i. e., the comparison of lengths, first by 
the pupils guessing or estimating the result, and then 
verifying by the use of the unit yard, foot, or inch. 
The name unit and its use especially for comparison 
should be brought out emphatically. With this con- 
cept clearly in mind the pupil is ready for the teach- 
ing of square measure, which should for the first few 
lessons not go further than the unit square yard. 

Two pieces of board, one seven inches by four inches 
and the other thirteen by two might be shown to the 
class and the question asked which would require more 
paint to cover its surface (The word "surface" has 
probably been learned in connection with geography. 
Its importance in this connection might justify the 
teacher in making it the theme of a preparatory lan- 
guage lesson as was suggested in the last chapter in 
the case of the word "passive"). The pupils will 
soon see, if properly questioned, the necessity for a 
unit of comparison, and they are now ready for the 
presentation of these units. 

The convenience of the square as a unit can be de- 
veloped by the teacher showing the difficulties attend- 
ing the use of circle, triangle, or other figures. It then 
remains to apply the linear units to the sides of the 
square inch, square foot, and square yard. Dividing 
the two rectangles above mentioned by horizontal and 
vertical lines upon the blackboard will form an ex- 
cellent objective presentation of the unit square inch 



ARITHMETIC 183 

and also of its use in surface measurements. Similarly 
for the square foot and square yard, the pupils easily 
being led to derive the numbers 144 and 9 by means of 
dividing a square foot into square inches, and a square 
yard into square feet. 

The applications of square measure are too obvious 
to require detailed mention here. The utilitarian 
value which often attaches to the ability to estimate a 
length or distance is less important in the case of 
square measure. We are not so frequently called 
upon to estimate surfaces as lengths, and even when we 
do so, we generally base our estimates upon the linear 
dimensions. An exception is furnished by the unit 
acre especially in rural communities. Here the utili- 
tarian and conventional knowledge of this unit may 
assume considerable importance. 

Decimal Fractions. — The teaching of tenths, hun- 
dredths, etc., in decimal fraction form, presupposes the 
comprehension of the ordinary fraction, as well as 
knowledge of our system of integral decimal notation. 
Besides this, it will be found, in the United States at 
least, that acquaintance with our money system, read- 
ing and writing such amounts as $22.58, e. g., will form 
a useful presupposition. The latter case is one of the 
few instances where a definitely utilitarian part of 
arithmetic is taught because of its great practical value 
before the pupils are old enough to understand its 
theory. The aim of all the work in decimal fractions 
is obviously utilitarian. 

Of the above presuppositions, the decimal character 
of our integral notation is the most important. This 



184 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

should be an emphatic part of the stage of prepara- 
tion, the pupils' attention being directed to the rela- 
tion of units to tens, tens to hundreds, etc., as well as 
to the relation as first taught, i. e., tens, hundreds, etc., 
merely as multiples of the lower place values. This 
relationship can be drawn from the class readily. 
They know that 100, for example, is 10 times 10 ; their 
work in ordinary fractions will have been sufficient 
to make them see that conversely 10 is one tenth of 
100, and so with the higher notations. The aim of 
this part of the teaching is to have the pupils clearly 
grasp the fact that each number represents a value 
ten times as great as its right hand neighbor, and one 
tenth as great as its left hand neighbor. Reference to 
their knowledge of United States money notation may 
now be made and they can see the application of the 
above to an amount like $875 where the unit is one 
dollar. Then write upon the blackboard $875.57. 
They can read this and now are in a position to apply 
the theory of decimal place value to the right of the 
decimal point, a point the significance of whose name 
will have been explained in connection with integral 
place value, and the placing of which will have been 
insisted on in all their exercises in money notation. 
The pupils will readily see that the first place to the 
right of the point represents dimes or tenths of dol- 
lars, while the next place represents cents or tenths 
of dimes. Tenths of dimes can readily be shown to be 
hundredths of dollars. Before going on to three or 
more decimal places, it would be a good plan to give 
considerable varied drill in reading and writing deci- 



ARITHMETIC 185 

mals of two places where other units than dollars are 
used. This is particularly important when we recall 
the manner of concept formation. Practically all the 
child 's perceptive experience has connected the decimal 
point with money notation. It becomes necessary 
therefore to remove this element from the connotation 
leaving only the fractional idea. Soon the two place 
idea must also give way to one, three, four, or more 
decimal places. This step is facilitated by the first 
part of the preparatory work in integral notation, the 
only addition required being the grasp of one tenth 
of a tenth as a hundredth, one tenth of a hundredth 
as a thousandth, etc. This point can be made clear by 
performing the actual operations with fractions. 
These practical operations also serve to explain the ne- 
cessity of placing the decimal points directly under 
each other in addition and subtraction, and of adding 
the places for multiplication and subtracting for divi- 
sion. These fundamental operations with decimals 
furnish an excellent illustration of the ' ' why ' ' helping 
to fix the "how." Nothing now remains but drill in 
utilitarian problems to fix the knowledge. The econ- 
omy of decimal fraction notation should be emphasized 
for the class by having one set of pupils perform an 
operation like 75.238 times .37 in the fractional way 
while the remainder of the class perform it by the use 
of decimals. 

Division of Fractions. — The teaching of division of 
fractions will be considered because it presents a nice 
question for the teacher to decide, and shows the im- 
portance of a clearly defined aim in education. From 



186 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

a narrow utilitarian standpoint, it might seem suffi- 
cient merely to tell the pupils that they shall invert 
the divisor and proceed as in mutiplication. Novel or 
striking presentation followed by a large amount of 
drill would then probably suffice to fix the important 
point, viz., inversion of the divisor. The author has a 
distinct recollection of one teacher who fixed the pro- 
cess for a class of boys by telling them that division of 
fractions was something like a fight, ' ' You hit the other 
fellow below the belt and double him up ! " "What tins 
presentation lacked in elegance it made up in emphasis. 
Emotional intensity of impression rendered one hear- 
ing of Romeo 's voice sufficient for Juliet 's recognition ; 
and the same influence, though less potently employed, 
proved efficacious for this arithmetic class. At any 
rate, the teacher, either from thoughtfulness or 
thoughtlessness^ — I really do not know which — avoided 
any attempt at demonstration of the reason for in- 
verting the divisor. 

As soon as either the propaedeutic or disciplinary 
aim of arithmetic attains prominence in the mind of 
syllabus maker or teacher, the teaching of division of 
fractions assumes a very different aspect. Proficiency 
in performing the operation now becomes secondary to 
comprehension of the underlying reasons of the pro- 
cess. The method of teaching then required will have 
a vital bearing upon the place or grade in which the 
subject shall be taught, as far greater intellectual ma- 
turity is required to demonstrate the process than 
merely to use it. Problems involving division of frac- 
tions can readily be deferred until pupils are old 



ARITHMETIC 187 

enough to comprehend the demonstration, if the latter 
method is to be employed. 

The presuppositions here are obviously a knowledge 
of the fundamental integral operations of fractions and 
of their multiplication. It would be a good plan to 
emphasize that aspect of division sometimes called par- 
tition, and considerable oral drill might be given in 
construing such problems as "eight divided by two" 
as ' ' how many two 's in eight ? ' ' This point of attack 
constitutes the easiest way of approaching fractional 
divisors. The pupils can then be led to grasp the 
solution of a simple problem like "eight divided by 
one-half," i. e., "how many halves in eight?" Self- 
activity is the only rational method here. The prep- 
aration with integral division will enable the pupils 
to solve readily problems like the above where the 
dividend is an integer and the divisor a simple 
fraction with unity for numerator. Objective helps 
will serve to vivify the instruction. The next step 
should not be taken until this kind of problem is 
thoroughly understood by the entire class. When 
this has been accomplished and the pupils appreciate 
that the process actually consists of multiplying the 
dividend by the denominator of the divisor, they are 
ready to proceed to simple divisions with numerators 
greater than unity, for a while, however, not going 
beyond the number six. They can now be led to grasp 
the fact that if one-third is contained twelve times in 
four, two-thirds will be contained but half as many 
times. Making haste slowly and at times objectively, 
they can be led to formulate for themselves the rule 



188 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

that they multiply by the denominator and divide by 
the numerator, and will readily see that this amounts 
to inverting the fraction and proceeding as in multi- 
plication. "When and only when this is fully compre- 
hended is the teacher justified in permitting such writ- 
ten solutions as 8 -—- % = 8 x %. The transition to 
fractional dividends can best be made as an applica- 
tion of the rule already formulated. The conscien- 
tious teaching of this subject as just indicated neces- 
sitates a grasp on the part of the teacher of a value 
of arithmetic other than utilitarian. Otherwise the 
path of least resistance will naturally lead her to the 
mere telling of the "how" of the process, depending 
for the fixing upon drill. 

Elementary Mensuration. — Most courses in arith- 
metic include some practical applications of geometry, 
generally' called mensuration. Some of this work on 
account of its obvious simplicity and utilitarian value 
is taught early in the elementary course, while much 
is left for the seventh and eighth school years. The 
tendency of recent ' ' downward ' ' revisions of arithme- 
tic courses has been to eliminate everything from men- 
suration which could not plainly be justified by its 
practical application to the needs of after life. This 
amounts to a tacit disregard of the propedeutic value 
of the subject, a value moreover which was scarcely 
justifiable when we consider the extent to which the 
charm of novelty in taking up a brand new subject is 
vitiated. The reform in mensuration courses has its 
plain lesson for the teacher, who should make the work 
just as concrete and practical as she possibly can. 



ARITHMETIC 189 

Demonstration of such rules as finding area of rect- 
angles and triangles and volume of prisms suggests 
itself as a good method of fixing the processes by means 
of rational mental organization. In the case of the 
circle, cylinder, cone, and sphere the elementary school 
pupil may be interested in "approximate" demonstra- 
tion, but must take the rules as pedagogic dogmas, the 
real proof of which will be forthcoming in geometry, 
an interesting science which he will have the oppor- 
tunity of studying in the high school. So with the 
process of square root and the relationship of the 
sides of the right triangle. Confidence in the cor- 
rectness of these processes based upon proof where pos- 
sible, e. g., in square root, or upon tentative inductions, 
e. g., in the right triangle, must take the place of rigid 
demonstration. 

Mensuration is primarily an objective study and the 
objects should be practically always in evidence in the 
teaching. So in the various applications of the rules, 
abstractness must give way to concrete work in the 
room, building, yard, and home. How many gallons 
of water are confained in that particular tank on the 
roof of the building opposite ? Let the pupils get the 
dimensions themselves if practicable, or at least find 
out what they are from some one who knows. One ex- 
ception to the concreteness of the work may be men- 
tioned. It will be recalled that in discussing the ab- 
stract nature of real mathematical thinking, objec- 
tion was made to the constant repetition of denomi- 
nations as impeding thought processes. This objection 
applies to the abstract number work of mensuration 



190 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

as well. For example, teachers are divided in opinion 
in regard to the method of stating the facts in com- 
puting area from length and width. Some would re- 
quire the pupils to say, e. g., 8 sq. ft. x 2 = 16 sq. ft. ; 
others favor the rather irrational procedure of 8 ft. x 
2 ft. = 16 sq. ft. The former is certainly the better 
plan in the beginning as in the teaching of square 
measure. The best mathematical plan perhaps is 
merely to require the pupils to remember that the di- 
mensions must be of the same denomination, feet by 
feet, inches by inches, etc., and then to have the entire 
process abstract until the product is determined, thus 
in the above problem 8 x 2 = 16 sq. ft. Similarly 
16 -=- 2 = 8 ft. This constitutes real mathematical 
thinking and there is no good pedagogical reason to 
substitute for it any troublesome circumlocutions. 



CHAPTER X 
GEOGRAPHY 

Nature of Geography. — Geography has been an im- 
portant subject in the educational systems of various 
peoples in all ages. From the earliest times the habi 
tat of human beings has been made a subject of scru- 
tiny and hypothesis. A knowledge of his own and 
near-by localities was necessary to the most primitive 
savage. Even lower animals may be said to possess 
some sort of geographic instinct and knowledge. For 
many of them the sense of smell furnishes the observa- 
tion and memory data, which humans derive mainly 
through sight. 

Geography, in its modern development, is a mixed 
science. It presupposes or includes in its own elemen- 
tary treatment various other sciences, such as mathe- 
matics, history, politics, zoology, botany, chemistry, 
physics, and geology. This inclusiveness and wide 
range of geography lead us to make four divisions 
of the science, called respectively mathematical, phys- 
ical, commercial and political geography. These four 
terms are perhaps sufficiently descriptive without fur- 
ther explanation. 

Utilitarian Value of Geography. — As indicated in the 
above paragraph, geography has a considerable utili- 

191 



192 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

tarian value. ' ' This is the earth upon which we live ' ' 
was the first sentence of a text-book which the author 
studied as a boy; and live upon it the human race 
probably will for many ages to come. It behooves us 
therefore to become as intimately acquainted with our 
earthly home as may be necessary. Finding one 's way 
easily to a desired destination is an important accom- 
plishment and one that must be learned. Geographi- 
cal knowledge is essential to the attainment of this pro- 
ficiency, whether it be exemplified in a primitive locali- 
zation or orientation in a wilderness through the help 
of the stars ; or finding one 's way to the Victoria Sta- 
tion in London and taking the proper train for Dover. 
So far as this kind of geographical knowledge is con- 
cerned, it is obvious that localities of various parts 
of the world are not of equal importance. Knowledge 
of the home town or village, the neighboring counties, 
the nearby states, the nation, are, in just this order, 
valuable to the American boy or girl. The more re- 
mote the place, the less justification for detailed study, 
so far as this narrow utilitarian aspect is concerned. 
The exact trend of the Himalayas or the states drained 
by the Congo are almost negligible from this point of 
view. Specific geographic study is often a necessary 
preliminary or accompaniment of extensive travel. 
This must await the individual need. The schooling 
of the average "boy cannot definitely take into con- 
sideration the probability of foreign itineraries, at 
least not to the extent of using Baedeker as a text- 
book ! 

There are, of course, other utilitarian aspects of 



GEOGRAPHY 193 

geography besides locality knowledge. Usually the 
most important consideration is not how to get to a 
place, but what place to get to. It is difficult here 
as everywhere to make a distinction between utilitarian 
and happiness values. We may say, however, that a 
man's choice of a locality on the basis of its produc- 
tions, inhabitants, or occupations with a view to a 
profitable outcome illustrates a strictly utilitarian 
value of the study. The tremendous commercial com- 
petition of the nations in modern times emphasizes the 
importance of geographical knowledge along indus- 
trial lines far beyond the narrow study of one's own 
locality. 

Happiness Value. — As indicated in the above para- 
graph and in Chapter II., the distinction between hap- 
piness and utility is difficult to draw. An illustration 
would perhaps be more to the point than any academic 
splitting of hairs. If a man goes to Munich because 
he knows that as a toy manufacturer he can get help- 
ful ideas in that city, his geographical knowledge has 
become of utilitarian value. If, on the other hand, he 
travels to the same place because of his fondness for 
art or music, his knowledge exhibits its happiness 
value, a value which the teacher can ill afford to neg- 
lect. To arouse an interest in the world and its 
people thus creating a desire for travel and some 
ability to appreciate what one sees while traveling 
becomes a highly important part of the geography 
teacher's work. She will be the better equipped to 
accomplish this end the more extensive have been her 
own travels and geographical reading, the inspiration 



194 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

of the former, however, far outweighing the assistance 
of the latter. 

Conventional Value. — It is obvious that a consider- 
able conventional value attaches to geography, which 
like the utilitarian value, varies inversely as the dis- 
tance. Surely a child must be expected to know the 
principal streets, buildings, industries, etc., of his own 
city. Too often, however, visitors from distant parts 
iirst acquaint natives with their own interesting en- 
vironment. The conventional value of knowledge of 
remote localities is largely proportional to their his- 
torical or literary significance or striking character- 
istics. Palestine, the Isle of Man, St. Helena, the Coli- 
seum, Niagara Falls, Vesuvius illustrate bits of geo- 
graphical knowledge which one must possess to escape 
the ignominy of being regarded as an ignoramus. So 
far as present day events are concerned, the modern 
newspaper, with its wealth of illustration and maps, 
has relieved the school of some of its task. The teacher 
must ever bear in mind, however, the conventional im- 
portance attaching so strongly to geographical events 
near in place and time. 

Propaedeutic Value. — The nature of geography as a 
mixed science furnishes a foundation on which the 
science work of secondary education may rest. Par- 
ticularly geology and physics find a large field in the 
elementary course in geography. Similiarly the in- 
dustrial and commercial aspects of the work prepare 
the way for the more intensive courses in commercial 
geography now being given in many of our high 
schools. The scientific implications of geography of- 



GEOGRAPHY 195 

fer frequent opportunities for the teacher to remind 
the pupils that this or that fact will be more fully 
elucidated when they get to the higher schools under 
botany or chemistry or astronomy, etc. Such re- 
minders accompanying interesting experimental or 
other objective work may easily become the determin- 
ing influence in deciding for a child that he continue 
into the high school instead of going to work. Geog- 
raphy, in its propaedeutic aspect, thus becomes a large 
inductive field which will form an apperceptive basis 
for the generalizations of scientific work in secondary 
education. 

Moral Value. — The Herbartians who scrutinize every 
subject with a view of determining some moral aspect 
dwell with considerable emphasis upon the value of 
geography. There is much truth in their contention 
that geography properly taught has considerable moral 
value. It is however only one of the several values 
here discussed and by no means overshadows the 
others. The inter- dependence of mankind, the need of 
one for the other, is an idea of supreme moral im- 
portance. The grasp of mankind as one large family, 
all working together for the attainment of a better 
material and spiritual world, gives a moral viewpoint 
enabling one to understand the deepest philosophical 
and religious truths of the ages. Rich opportunity is 
afforded the teacher to lift her pupils from their 
natural egoism up toward a noble altruism. The vivid 
picturing or describing of coal miners risking their 
lives for our comfort, of fishermen near the treacherous 
banks, stokers deep down in the ocean freight ship, 



196 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

must, if properly presented, awaken a responsive thrill 
of gratitude. Such teaching warms the very heart. 
From this point of view, a copy of Millet's famous 
Angelus or The Man with the Hoe is far more 
than an artistic wall decoration. It is objective geog- 
raphy, stressing, it is true, the emotional and moral 
sides of the occupation of agriculture. The obverse 
side of the consideration of what the world is doing 
for us becomes the consideration of what we can do 
for the world, thus bringing out the need for active 
personal industry. It is said that ex-president Roose- 
velt always thanks the engineer who guides the loco- 
motive of his train. Such thanks should always be felt 
even when not expressed. The mutuality of commer- 
cial relations has an important moral bearing. The 
storekeeper who displays his wares in the shop win- 
dow primarily perhaps designs his own profit, but the 
passer-by who needs these wares is grateful for their 
display. The gratitude of the salesperson receiving 
the purchaser's money demands the reciprocal grati- 
tude of the purchaser for the opportunity of securing 
the goods. The physician, the missionary, the lawyer, 
the explorer all work for humanity, and a recognition 
of this fact is necessary to the pupils' proper moral 
attitude. Let the child but consider in some detail 
the complexity of the process necessary to the pro- 
duction of some of the most common useful objects 
and he will be nearer to a view of humanity as a work- 
ing whole. 

Geographical Concepts. — The consideration, in the 
last chapter, of mathematical ideas, led us to lay em- 



GEOGRAPHY 197 

phasis upon their essentially abstract nature. Ob- 
jective work formed, as it were, a kind of crutch, which 
was to be thrown away as soon as possible. The same 
point of view is by no means applicable to geographical 
ideas. Geography is a concrete science, and in the ele- 
mentary course, at least, and perhaps higher, the in- 
struction can scarcely be made too objective. Text- 
book study of geography tends to degenerate into mere 
verbalism. Even map study, improperly handled, will 
not supply the needed concreteness. The superinten- 
dent who asked a fifth year class why New Hampshire 
was colored red on the map and Vermont green, is 
said to have received the response, "Because the color 
of the ground is different." This may be a facetious 
exaggeration, but all geography teachers are aware of 
the misunderstandings of pupils trained verbally or by 
text-books merely. The author, perhaps below the 
average of his class in brightness, had an idea that the 
Nile River flowed up and he frequently wondered, in a 
vague way, how it managed to overcome the force of 
gravity. Nevertheless, in the lesson, he could recite 
as glibly as the next one the exact source, course, etc., 
of the river. The nature of geographical concepts 
makes it advisable to employ the type method to a 
great extent. In teaching volcanoes, for instance, it is 
a good plan to take one typical and interesting volcano, 
such as Vesuvius, and explain its structure, activity, 
and interesting historical eruptions thoroughly. Out 
of such a lesson will spring a connotation which can 
then be attached to the term volcano, and give to it 
the picturesque reality demanded by real geographical 



198 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

instruction. The same result may be attained induc- 
tively, but not with such effectiveness. 

Geographical Definitions. — What was said about the 
function of definitions in grammar applies, to a con- 
siderable extent, to geography. Recognition of the 
denotation is the important factor, and definition is 
desirable in so far as it helps toward this end. The 
definitions of geographical terms are, however, more 
easily comprehended, being far less abstract than those 
of grammar. Besides, as a propaedeutic to high school 
work in science, precision of definition helps to create 
an ideal of the accuracy essential to scientific method. 
Such work should, however, be deferred until the 
seventh or eighth school years, and should never, ex- 
cept in very provisional form, be required in the early 
years. Provisional definition is more necessary in 
geography than in grammar, because there is not the 
same richness of mental content in the former subject 
as in the latter. A child habitually uses nouns and 
verbs correctly long before he knows these terms, but 
isthmuses and continents necessitate instruction in 
both subject matter and terminology. One result of 
this difference is that the Socratic method is not ap- 
plicable to nearly so great an extent. 

Where the denotation of a geographical term is quite 
narrow as in the case of ocean or continent, exhaustive 
definition has no place in the elementary course. The 
pupil is not sufficiently mature to profit by or even ap- 
preciate the nice distinctions made by scientific geog- 
raphers. That there are five oceans, to appreciate the 
fact that they are large bodies of salt water, to know 



GEOGRAPHY 199 

their names, and to be able to point them out promptly 
on a map is certainly sufficient knowledge of this sub- 
ject for an elementary pupil. Similarly "continent" 
whether taken as having a denotation of two, three, or 
six land masses, needs but brief description and ac- 
curate recognition. In many parts of elementary 
geography the wise teacher will depend on realistic 
description rather than upon definition. 

Mental Organization of Geographical Facts. — Perhaps 
no other branch in the curriculum affords such plenti- 
ful opportunity for the apperceptive organization of 
its subject matter as does geography. The discussion 
of the question as to how many things can be attended 
to at one time applies with especial force to geography. 
The natural interrelations of climate, productions, oc- 
cupations, and civilization, for example, must become 
mentally related systems of knowledge for the pupils. 
It would constitute an unpardonable pedagogic waste 
to teach the river systems of a continent completely 
and then, at a later time, to teach its surface as a dis- 
tinct lesson. Thus improperly taught, the pupil has 
two mental systems instead of one. Pedagogically 
connected, such groups of knowledge make for a more 
thorough retention, as the two groups mutually rein- 
force each other. The thoughtful teacher will be con- 
stantly on the lookout for such means of unifying the 
pupils' knowledge of geography. In this kind of 
work self-activity can and should come into play. 
What a river is may have to be simply told to the 
pupils, but why the Mississippi, for instance, flows 
south should be drawn from the pupils on the basis 



200 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

of their previous knowledge of the surface of the 
United States. Similarly, the location of the great 
eastern cities of this country can be developed in an 
interesting way on the basis of data, both historical 
and geographical. 

Objective Methods. — As previously indicated, most of 
the geographical instruction of the past and much 
of that of the present was characterized by a verbal 
formalism deadening alike to interest and real com- 
prehension. It is probable that one could walk into 
a modern school today and find a pernicious teaching 
of rivers, for example, taking some such form as the 
memorizing of verbal descriptions of their courses, 
from note book records dictated by the teacher. So 
far as the map is referred to at all, its effect is nothing 
more than the association between such verbal descrip- 
tion and a thin black snaky line with a printed name, 
a line suggesting neither swimming, wading, nor any- 
thing at all wet. Similarly cities tend to remain mere 
dots, mountains caterpillar-like formations, etc. 

But little thought is needed to show the futility of 
such empty, verbal teaching. Concreteness is the very 
soul of real geographic knowledge. The best way to 
secure this concreteness is obviously to acquaint the 
pupils with the actual places or facts to be studied. 
Observation of a city, river, industry, etc., wherever 
possible, is the best method. If it were practicable, a 
traveling geography class would be ideal. A wealthy 
youth, accompanied by a wise tutor, can secure his 
geographical knowledge in this way. It is, of course, 
manifestly impossible for a New York or Philadelphia 



GEOGRAPHY 201 

public school teacher to take her class to Egypt when 
she takes up the study of that country. But she can 
take her pupils on various geographical excursions, to 
zoological gardens, botanical collections, museums, 
mills, factories, etc. where actual observation may help 
to lay an important perceptive basis for their knowl- 
edge. Or she can bring various objects and products 
into the school room, when their size and accessibility 
permit. 

The difficulties attending geographical excursions 
make this excellent form of instruction less frequent 
than would be desirable. Boards of Education, 
through lack of pedagogic insight, tend to discourage 
this interesting method by permitting class excursions 
far too seldom as well as by withholding needed finan- 
cial aid. The teacher also is apt to feel discouraged by 
the tremendous responsibility of the physical and 
moral supervision of forty or more children. These 
difficulties can be overcome, if the principal and 
teachers possess the right spirit, by arranging for the 
taking of a class in two or three sections or groups, 
and by securing the cooperation of some interested 
parents of the community. In every case, the teacher 
should first go over the ground thoroughly by herself 
and determine on a specific plan or campaign of ob- 
servation. She should also realize the importance of 
preparing her pupils for the trip, not telling them so 
much as to take the edge off their curiosity, but just 
sufficient to render them appreciative and receptive. 
The excursions should be supplemented by live oral 
recitation, to be followed profitably by a formal writ- 



202 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

ten exercise, based on blackboard outline of the salient 
points worked out jointly by teacher and pupils. 
Written exercises, invariably following excursions, may 
easily become burdensome and give to an otherwise 
pleasant occasion an association of a disagreeable, in- 
hibitory character. 

Where the real object cannot be brought before the 
pupils' observation, either by excursion or in the class 
room, models and pictures should be used. Care must 
be taken that they are accurately interpreted par- 
ticularly as to size. Pictures should be both typical 
and realistic. To secure the former aim, line draw- 
ings are usually far more effective than halftone re- 
productions of photographs, where the obtrusion of 
unimportant detail is frequently unavoidable. Every 
school should be equipped with a lantern, and abun- 
dant sets of interesting views. A central library of 
such lantern slides should be in the possession of 
every school system which pretends to real educational 
modernness. As the process is cheapened and made 
safer for school room use, the moving picture will be- 
come a wonderful means for teaching geography. Its 
educational advantages have already been recognized, 
and its use is bound to increase greatly in the next 
decade. 

In all such pictorial work, care must be taken that 
the showing of views shall not degenerate into mere 
diversion. The vogue of the illustrated lecture is at- 
tended with dangers in the school as well as upon 
the public platform. A picture is an illustration, a 



GEOGRAPHY 203 

perceptual element of the concept. It must always 
be subordinated to the system of organized ideas which 
it is intended to vivify. Good verbal descriptions, ac- 
companied by active questioning of the pupils, is far 
superior to spiritless showing of pictures. 

Home Geography. — It is generally conceded that the 
first study of geography should base itself on observa- 
tion and description of the home environment, the city 
or village in which the children reside. Such initial 
work furnishes a rich field of perception out of which 
can be developed in due time the necessary concepts. 
Apart from this psychological consideration, however, 
an important utilitarian aim is also attained. A defi- 
nite knowledge of home geography is a most useful ac- 
quisition. The nearness of the surroundings make ex- 
cursions desirable and practicable. If the town is 
situated on a river, the pupils should be taken in a 
boat for a considerable ride, their attention being di- 
rected to objects of interest, the shipping, docks, tides, 
etc. Similarly if the school is near a mining region, 
a visit to the mines with competent guides is manifestly 
important. Like opportunities may be afforded in cer- 
tain communities for the direct observation of agricul- 
ture, grazing, commerce, and manufacturing. The in- 
dustrial processes form perhaps the most important 
factor of this observation work. Actual perceptual 
knowledge of the processess involved in the making of 
some simple household article broadens our ideas and 
deepens our respect for labor and laborers. After all, 
life is at least two dimensional, and should be meas- 



204 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

ured in breadth as well as in length. Peculiarly sig- 
nificant for their mental broadening is the human 
element. 

A primrose by the river's brim 

A yellow primrose was to bim 

And it was nothing more 

applies with much greater force to artificial than to 
natural objects. One who has followed the making of 
a cannon from the cutting of the wooden pattern, 
through the casting, up to the last finishing touches 
will see ever so much more when he looks upon a can- 
non than one who is ignorant of these processes. 
Work of this character may well claim a considerable 
happiness value. Apart from its obvious utilitarian- 
ism, therefore, home geography is particularly impor- 
tant as supplying the perceptive foundation for this 
deeper and broader knowledge. 

Map Study. — The geographical map stands, as it 
were, between pictorial and verbal description. Al- 
though more symbolic than either, its symbolism is 
quite effective, as it appeals to the eye and enables 
the pupils to get a simultaneous grasp of numerous 
details. The principal danger of map study is, as in 
the verbal study, that it is apt to remain a mere sym- 
bolism, representative in but a slight degree of ma- 
terial realities. The child who in response to ' ' Where 
have you seen the surface of the earth?" said "On the 
map" instantly betrayed a faulty method of teaching. 
Reference has already been made to the tendency of 



GEOGRAPHY 205 

the black dots and snaky lines to remain just so, in- 
stead of suggesting cities and rivers. 

This finality of the symbol may be obviated but not 
absolutely eliminated by a slow and thoughtful intro- 
ductory teaching of the map. The fundamental con- 
sideration is "scale." The fact that a large room can 
be adequately represented on a small piece of paper 
must first be grasped by all the pupils. This should 
be developed Socratically, as the idea is too important 
and of too general application for the teacher to de- 
pend on mere telling. If the class room is five yards 
by six yards and the same proportion is to be shown 
on the pupils' plans, they must be led to see that if 
they use inches instead of yards, their drawing must 
be five inches by six inches. They should then be 
taught the word scale and should place upon their 
papers something like the following. "Scale — One 
inch stands for one yard. ' ' After they have succeeded 
in drawing their class room plans with its windows 
and desks to approximate scale, they should be sup- 
plied with simple blueprints or mimeographed plans of 
various dimensions, and with the aid of scale and rule 
should determine the actual dimensions of the rooms. 
Plans of squares and parks should be similarly treated, 
the larger denomination mile taking the place of the 
foot or yard. 

After considerable practice in drawing and reading 
simple plans, the pupils are ready for the study of the 
conventional methods of map representation. This 
work, of course, makes some perceptive or vividly de- 



206 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

scriptive knowledge of rivers, mountains, oceans, etc., 
an essential presupposition. If the home geography 
can furnish the requisite observation material it 
should certainly be employed. In the absence cf such 
favorable environment, its place must be taken by pic- 
tures and description. Moulding in clay or sand is 
an excellent way of representing clearly to the minds 
of the pupils such features as mountains, valleys, 
river basins, etc. Much of this objective work is apt 
to find disfavor with teachers on the score of its being 
troublesome. This is a just criticism, perhaps, but it 
must be remembered that the best results in teaching 
as well as in life are by no means those characterized 
by ease of attainment. It is moreover a consoling 
consideration to know that time spent in such a man- 
ner is really economically employed in that it yields 
a compound interest of thorough mental organization. 
Particularly where the pupils themselves do the work 
in moulding are the results most effective. 

It is necessary to remember, in all such objective 
work, that a good pedagogic beginning is, after all, 
only a beginning. Some teachers show an alarming 
willingness to accept the crown for a well planned in- 
itial lesson or two and then drift back into a formal 
verbalism which soon obliterates all traces of the ex- 
cellent start. Elementary geography begins, con- 
tinues, and ends in the concrete. 

Maps readily degenerate into collections of conven- 
tional symbols unless frequent reference is made to 
their underlying realities. Map reading is an exercise 
which should ever accompany objective work. A se- 



GEOGRAPHY 207 

ries of prints showing picturesque views of the Rhine, 
for example, should be immediately followed by the 
study of a map of the region on which are clearly in- 
dicated the interesting places which have just been the 
subject of pictorial representation. This map reading 
should also include exercises in working out relation- 
ships such as drainage and surface, surface and in- 
dustries, commerce and city locations, etc. The black 
snaky line is apt to be " desymbolized " into a real 
river when the pupil is required to determine from its 
course the slope of the land. The black dot must needs 
lose some of its "dottiness" when it suggests a pros- 
perous port with its shipping and active industrial 
life. The scarcity of dots in regions like northern 
Canada or in the Amazon basin becomes significant 
when connected with climatic considerations. It is 
doubtful whether associative work of this character 
can be overdone. 

Map Drawing. — The above considerations in regard 
to map study have important implications for map 
drawing. Observation, emphasis, and correlation are 
the essential factors of this work. It may be said in 
passing that few geography text-books are well 
equipped with adequate pedagogical maps. Commer- 
cial considerations perhaps lead publishers to include 
a wealth of detail, rendering the maps confusing and 
unfitted for local use. When the engraving of maps 
becomes a cheaper process, the local needs of various 
communities will perhaps receive greater considera- 
tion. 

There is no better way of insuring close observa- 



208 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

tion of any object than by requiring pupils to draw 
it. Self -activity is called into play and the resultant 
drawing furnishes an excellent means of testing the 
pupils' care and attention. This consideration applies 
with especial force to map drawing. If, for instance, 
the teacher desires the pupils to observe closely the 
character of the coastline of Europe, the easiest and 
best way is to have them draw it. The adherents of 
the formal discipline doctrine would find the greatest 
value of such work to consist in the training of the 
power of observation. It does, in truth, furnish op- 
portunity for the strengthening of an ideal of care- 
ful scrutiny, but its chief value lies in the fact that it 
emphasizes a specific geographical fact, Tracing over 
the contour of a light outline map would not be nearly 
so effective in securing this result, although even this 
method is far superior to mere verbal description. 

Geographical emphasis may often be secured through 
carefully selected map drawing. Teachers often err 
by requiring too much detail and too extensive a map. 
If it is desired, for instance, to fix the zones in which 
North America is situated, three separate maps will 
probably be found more effective than one entire map 
of the continent. A map of the portion in the North 
Frigid zone, bounded on the south by the Arctic Circle, 
followed by a map of the portion bounded on the north 
by the Tropic of Cancer, and then by a map of the 
intermediate portion will provide an interesting and 
emphasizing exercise. A carefully drawn map of 
Long Island Sound drawn once is far better than a 
dozen maps of the United States, with this body of 



GEOGRAPHY 209 

water cramped and crowded into each of them. The 
teacher will be guided in her selection of what is to be 
drawn by the conventional value as well as by the 
local utilitarian value of the knowledge. 

Along with the pedagogical emphasis attaching to 
such selective map drawing there is abundant oppor- 
tunity for geographical correlation. In fact, every 
selection forms a kind of correlation. The definite 
omissions of the unselected portions give a rational 
setting to that which is drawn. The omission of the 
United States, for example, from the Torrid Zone por- 
tion of North America becomes peculiarly significant. 
Apart from this, however, definite explicit correlation 
can and should be secured. A map of Asia showing 
only the mountain systems and rivers binds together in 
a firm association these two related factors. So a 
map of eastern United States showing only the moun- 
tains and mining regions secures an important mental 
connection. Much of this correlational w T ork can be ef- 
fectively done on outline maps, as it would obviously 
be a waste of time to require the pupils to draw the 
contour in every case. 

Although neatness and accuracy are desirable qual- 
ities in every school exercise, they must not be pushed 
to an irrational or unpedagogic extreme in map draw- 
ing. In no case should the aim become artistic. As in 
Hamlet the play was the thing, so here, the thing is 
the impressing of certain geographical facts. The 
elaborateness and finish required by some teachers of 
map drawing is unsound pedagogy from every point 
of view. Many maps should be avowedly rough and 



210 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

sketchy, intended merely to serve some specific geo- 
graphical end. In some cases, perhaps unprogressive 
and misguided teachers have found elaborate, detailed 
map drawing an easy way of setting their pupils to 
work for long periods, and a restful — to the teacher — 
exercise in which supervision was apparently unneces- 
sary. At an educational exhibit in one of the large 
expositions, some years ago, one of the severest criti- 
cisms was leveled by visiting educators at a display of 
maps drawn by grammar school pupils, who, from the 
excellence of their work, might have seemed destined 
to take up map engraving as a profession. The 
slightest consideration of the time spent in prepar- 
ing this exhibit would be sufficient to condemn it at 
once. 

Occupations. — With the same reservations and cau- 
tions made in connection with the illustrative lessons 
of the two preceding chapters, the foregoing principles 
may perhaps be made clearer by a few similar specific 
examples. 

In teaching the occupations of man to young chil- 
dren, the teacher must first consider what knowledge 
the class already possesses. Comprehension of occu- 
pations in general will be more clearly grasped if it can 
find a basis of actual experience in some particular 
occupation. In a section of a city where practically 
all the fathers of the pupils have stores or shops, the 
work might well begin with trading, buying and sell- 
ing as a part of commerce. The actual observation of 
the children will form the corner stone of their intel- 
lectual apprehension of this one occupation. Excur- 



GEOGRAPHY 211 

sions to wharves, docks, or freight stations will enlarge 
their ideas. Throughout this work, emphasis must be 
laid upon the various phases of commerce as a means 
of making money or earning a livelihood. In a min- 
ing, lumbering, or agricultural district, these respec- 
tive occupations would form the perceptive basis. 

The pupils should then be led to understand the 
various leading occupations in as objective and pictur- 
esque a way as possible. Next to visiting industrial 
establishments, there is no more realistic way of pre- 
senting this subject than by means of moving pictures. 
Let the teachers once realize the educational efficiency 
of Edison's great invention, and lanterns and appro- 
priate films will soon be forthcoming. The various oc- 
cupations should not be taken up simultaneously, but 
sufficient time should be given to each to allow of 
building up an organized mass of knowledge. Only 
after this has been done, should the pupil be led to 
group together the various occupations as so many 
ways of earning a livelihood. The term occupation 
will have been used in connection with each form, so 
that it may easily attach itself to its rather simple 
connotation. 

In the course of these lessons, abundant oppor- 
tunities are offered for geographical correlation. The 
influence of location, climate, soil, and surface upon oc- 
cupation should not be disregarded. Map reading ex- 
ercises in which the pupils are asked to determine the 
probable nature of the occupations in various regions 
will be found an interesting means of organizing and 
fixing their knowledge. Every geographical fact — 



212 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

and occupation is a very important one — should be 
regarded as an effect, whose causes should be ascer- 
tained so far as possible by the self-active search of the 
pupils. 

The Straits of Europe. — In teaching a lesson on the 
straits of Europe, the teacher should bear in mind the 
conventional value of this knowledge to the ordinary 
American child. The method of teaching will be pro- 
foundly influenced by a recognition of this value. 
Historical and literary associations of an interesting 
character should be brought out. Latern views, pic- 
tures, and geographic descriptions must make the pres- 
entation as objective as possible. The ability to give 
the exact location of these straits is not nearly so im- 
portant as the knowledge of interesting events con- 
nected with them. 

Their location may be fixed by the pupils making 
imaginary voyages from place ■ to place, with their 
maps before them. Additional interest may be gained 
by questioning the pupils as to the strategic im- 
portance of control of the straits in case of war. 
This will also help in organizing their knowledge and 
connecting it with naturally related facts. The Bos- 
phorus, for example, must be thought of as the key 
to southern Russia, a fact which will explain the 
peculiar relation of Turkey to the rest of Europe. 
A fortress and fleet at Gibraltar as an advantage to 
British control of the Mediterranean will be readily 
grasped by even young pupils. The Kiel Canal can 
probably be compared with the long voyage through 
the Cattegat and Skagerack, and the resultant ad- 



GEOGRAPHY 213 

vantage to the northern German fleet will be easily 
understood. 

It is perfectly obvious that such teaching of the 
European Straits is far superior to the mere drill in 
exact locations. The map study involved in answer- 
ing questions like those indicated above will suffi- 
ciently impress the location. If thought necessary, 
the latter may be further emphasized by the pupils 
printing upon an outline map the names of the straits 
and of the countries whose shores they separate. So 
long, of course, as makers of term examinations ask 
for mere locations, drill in location is apt to take the 
place of the interesting study suggested by the nature 
of the subject. 

Direction. — The value of a knowledge of direction 
is primarily utilitarian. The eight principal points 
of the compass should be understood by all elementary 
pupils. Particularly should the child be able to de- 
termine the other points of the compass when he 
knows one. He should quickly and accurately derive 
north, east, and south from west; west, east, and north 
from south, etc. This utilitarian value determines the 
aim of the teacher's instruction and drill. 

Although north is the most logical direction with 
which to begin, east is probably the most satisfac- 
tory pedagogically. That the sun rises in the east 
and sets in the west is known by most children by 
the time they take up geography, or it can readily 
be shown. Observation of morning shadows as com- 
pared with afternoon or evening shadows, as well as 
observation of the sun itself, will determine east and 



214 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

west as two exactly opposite directions. North and 
south can then easily be derived. A large arrow 
painted upon the floor of the class room, indicating 
north, would tend to familiarize the pupils with the 
directional relations of their own room. They should 
occasionally stand up facing exactly north, then indi- 
cate east and west respectively by raising first the 
right and then the left hand, finishing the exercise 
— which might assume some of the character of a 
gymnastic drill — by wheeling around and facing the 
south. They should be led to ascertain the directions 
of their respective homes from the school house, at 
least to the extent of almost south, between north and 
east, etc. Similarly they should know the directions 
of the principal streets. Of course, when the four 
intermediate points — N. E., N. W., S. E., and S. W. — 
are learned, more accurate directions may be de- 
manded. 

In teaching the direction north, three important 
ways of determining it should be explained, viz., the 
compass, the shadows at noon, and the north star. 
There is possible utilitarian value in all three of these 
methods and certainly considerable conventional 
value. If possible, the teacher should secure a 
mariner's compass and exhibit it to the children. Its 
importance to the seaman can be explained so simply 
that young pupils could easily comprehend it. How 
far magnetism as an electrical phenomenon should 
be discussed would naturally depend upon the age of 
the children. Even young children, however, should 
have some tentative explanation of the mysterious 



GEOGRAPHY 215 

movements of the steel needle. The noon shadows of 
vertical objects form a handy method of determining 
north. The fact that at noon the sun is directly 
over our meridian due south of us can be explained in 
connection with the time abbreviations a. m. and p. m. 
The method of locating- the north star by means of 
the Great Dipper is interesting- as well as useful. 
Night excursions for young pupils are not to be rec- 
ommended. Still it would probably not be amiss to 
have a class come to school some evening late in the 
fall, to be shown exactly how to find this important 
star. The opportunity would also be afforded for an 
interesting study of a few of the conspicuous con- 
stellations, such as Orion, Pleiades, Aurega, etc. The 
happiness as well as the conventional value of a 
knowledge of these constellations is not to be lightly 
brushed aside. Merely knowing their names enlivens 
an evening walk for the incipient astronomer as much 
as knowing the names of plants does for the wander- 
ing botanist. It is an instance of life broadening. 

The direction we have been considering thus far 
may be called absolute, as distinguished from rela- 
tive direction, such as is indicated on maps. No mat- 
ter how the book may be placed, the top of the map 
is north and the bottom south. As referred to be- 
fore, care must be taken that relative positions on a 
map must be properly interpreted as indicating ac- 
tual directions. The words above and below should 
not be permitted to take the place of north and south. 
In the first introduction of direction in connection 
with map study and drawing, teachers should assure 



216 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

themselves of the pupil's comprehension of the repre- 
sentation. Wall maps which must as a rule hang 
vertically should occasionally be placed upon the 
floor, making the relative directions coincide with the 
absolute. Teachers are prone to make light of this 
confusion, but it exists and must be guarded against. 

It is probable that the uncertainty of ejective knowl- 
edge is nowhere so well exhibited as in the ill-war- 
ranted assurance of many teachers in regard to their 
pupils' comprehension of the symbolism of maps. 

Meridians and Parallels of Latitude. — In the teach- 
ing of meridians and parallels, the concept to be de- 
veloped is mathematical and abstract. The concrete- 
ness which is characteristic of so much of the geog- 
raphy course is not applicable here except in the way 
of objective illustration. The pupils must fully 
grasp the fact that these lines are symbolic or imag- 
inary. The presuppositions are familiarity with the 
globe as representing the earth, the equator, poles, 
and a knowledge of circular measure. The latter 
presupposition would probably necessitate a separate 
preparatory lesson. The fact that the circle is di- 
vided into 360 degrees must be told by the teacher. 
Considerable oral drill should fix this fact. Par- 
ticularly should the pupils be required to solve 
promptly such problems as "How many degrees in a 
quarter of a circle ? " "In a half circle?" etc. The 
division of the clock circumference into seconds and 
minutes is known to the pupils and can be related to 
the corresponding divisions of a degree. The marks 
' and " should also be taught. Some simple written 



GEOGRAPHY 217 

work involving degrees, minutes, and seconds should 
be given to fix circular measure in its entirety. 

The aim of the lesson, from the pupils' viewpoint, 
would be brought out best by arousing an attitude 
of expectant attention based upon the felt need of the 
explanation. The pupils could be questioned as to 
how they would direct a stranger to a certain part of 
the city, or, as to how they would state its location. 
Streets and roads would naturally form an essential 
part of their answers. "Where is the new hotel?" 
"At the corner of Main Street and Willow Avenue." 
"On Cedar Lane, between North Street and High 
Road," etc., etc. Now the teacher arouses curiosity 
by asking what method of location could be used 
where there are no streets or roads, e. g., in a wilder- 
ness, a desert, or on the sea. A small fishing boat 
chances to see a wrecked ocean liner far out of sight 
of land. How can it remember the location so that 
it may be able to direct a rescuing crew from the 
shore? Such questions will easily arouse in the pu- 
pils' minds the need of something bearing a resem- 
blance to the cross streets of a city. They are then 
ready to be told about the great circles running 
through the poles, called meridian circles, and the 
other circles parallel to the equator and north and 
south of it. The names latitude and longitude should 
then be introduced, and the pupils shown a globe 
plainly marked with these lines. They should at once 
be required to apply their knowledge of circular 
measure. Abundant practice should follow in deter- 
mining the latitude and longitude of various places, 



218 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

first from the globe and then from maps. Approxi- 
mations to integral degrees should precede exact de- 
terminations involving minutes and seconds. The 
fact that these lines are imaginary and that they are 
indicated merely on maps and globes and not on the 
earth's surface should be emphasized. 

Some thoughtful members of the class will naturally 
raise the very proper query as to how mariners de- 
termine just what imaginary lines they are on. It 
may suffice to answer in a general way that this is 
done by means of various instruments such as chro- 
nometer and sextant and observations of the sun and 
stars. A separate supplementary lesson might be 
given if the pupils are sufficiently mature, explain- 
ing the use of the chronometer in determining longi- 
tude and of the altitude of the North star in deter- 
mining latitude. The instruments actually used or 
good pictorial representations of them would add an 
interesting objective touch to the lesson. 

Map study and drawing form a good method of 
fixing the knowledge thus acquired. Let the pupils 
draw the Greenwich meridian, printing across it the 
names of the land and water divisions through which 
it passes; similarly for the parallel of latitude and 
the meridian of their home city. The computation 
of distances in miles north and south on the basis 
of latitude is another good way of fixing the facts 
and relating them to concrete geography. The im- 
possibility — for the pupils — of doing this on the basis 
of longitude differences, except on the equator, is an 
interesting point which could wisely be elicited from 



GEOGRAPHY 219 

the pupils by questioning. Further correlation with 
direction could be secured by calling attention to 
the noon shadows of vertical objects, a fact with which 
the pupils are already acquainted from their first 
study of direction. 

Rain. — There are various topics of physical geog- 
raphy which furnish excellent opportunities for cor- 
relation with important principles of physics. In- 
deed, without some such correlation, the geographical 
facts themselves can scarcely be understood. As most 
elementary school courses are now arranged, the only 
opportunity which a pupil has to acquire any knowl- 
edge of the interesting and useful science of physics 
is through the implications of geography and physi- 
ology. The phenomenon of rain has been selected be- 
cause it well illustrates their correlation. 

All weather phenomena occupy a large place in the 
mind of the general public. The familiar greeting 
"It's a nice day!" bears out this fact. Rain, snow, 
hail, mist are forms of precipitation which have prob- 
ably come into the experience of all elementary school 
pupils, and the impression has been intensified fre- 
quently by a strong emotional tinge. The discussion 
of the cause of rain will therefore naturally awaken 
their curiosity. The explanation will presuppose a 
knowledge of the principles of evaporation and con- 
densation of water, which presupposition will demand 
a distinct preparatory lesson on these physical aspects 
of the topic. 

The first fact to be presented to the pupils is that 
all matter exists in three states, solid, liquid, and 



220 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

gaseous. Live and abundant questioning will elicit 
many illustrations from the class so far as the solid 
and liquid states are concerned. "Water will obviously 
furnish the easiest and, for the purpose of the les- 
son, the best substance for experiment and observa- 
tion. Although it may safely be assumed that all 
the pupils have observed the melting of ice and the 
boiling of water, an objective demonstration of these 
transformations is most desirable. The vividness de- 
rived from perceptual presentation, no matter how 
familiar the phenomenon, is always a valuable foun- 
dation. The teacher should secure a piece of ice and 
explain that she intends making it first liquid and 
then gaseous by the application of heat. The name 
steam or vapor should be applied to the gaseous 
water and caution should be taken that the pupils 
understand that vapor is really invisible, that the so- 
called clouds of vapor seen escaping from the spout 
of a tea-kettle are in reality numerous drops of water 
held together by the vapor. The term evaporation 
should be applied to the slow transformation of water 
into vapor, a phenomenon which the pupils have fre- 
quently observed in the drying of streets after a 
shower, the drying of clothes on a wash line, etc. 

The important point for the pupils to grasp here 
is that the water is not annihilated, but that it 
merely changes its form. The truth of this latter 
fact can be easily proved in connection with the ex- 
periment described above. The steam escaping from 
the boiling water will readily condense on a cool plate 
held above it, and the drops of water should be 



GEOGRAPHY 221 

shown to the pupils. They should then be led to ap- 
ply the word freezing to the phenomenon of changing 
water into ice, and might be allowed to guess for a 
moment or two as to what name is given to the trans- 
formation of vapor into water. They already know 
the terms melting, evaporating, and freezing and will 
readily appreciate the necessity of the additional 
word. As soon as they appreciate this necessity, but 
not before, should they be given the words condense 
and condensation, which terms should be plainly writ- 
ten upon the blackboard and pronounced by the class. 
The lesson could profitably conclude with an oral dis- 
cussion of various familiar instances of evaporation 
and condensation, such as the collection of water drops 
on the outside of a pitcher of cold water, the fogging 
of window panes in winter, the drying up of ink in 
ink-wells, etc. 

At the subsequent lesson on rain, there should first 
be a brief oral review of the principal points of the 
previous lesson, a review in which the words evapora- 
tion and condensation are used as much as possible. 
The aim of the lesson should then be concisely stated 
as the purpose to explain the cause of rain on the 
basis of the physical facts previously learned. This 
explanation can now proceed largely in a Socratic 
manner. The pupils will readily respond to such 
questions as to how the waters from the surface of 
streams, from rain soaked streets, etc., are taken up 
from the earth, and they will be quite willing to be- 
lieve that the clouds they see in the sky are really 
masses of vapor more or less condensed. This would 



222 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

be an appropriate time for a lesson on cloud forms, 
the principal varieties being described and pictorially 
represented. Excellent lantern views of clouds are 
easily procurable and would add greatly to the inter- 
est of the lesson. 

Another experiment could now be profitably under- 
taken to show the cause of the actual precipitation 
of rain through the agency of further condensation. 
A porcelain pail of water might be exhibited and the 
pupils asked to observe the condensation of atmos- 
pheric vapor on its external surface. The water could 
then be rapidly cooled by stirring in a large num- 
ber of small pieces of ice. The pupils can then ob- 
serve how the initial mist collects in small drops, then 
larger drops which finally become so heavy that they 
slide down the sides of the pail. It could then prob- 
ably be drawn from them that analogous conditions 
might produce similar effects on the vapor masses 
called clouds. Rapid cooling would at once suggest 
itself as a cause, and would lead to the question as 
to the cause of this cooling, easily traceable to the 
influence of cool air currents or winds. No further 
detail than this is desirable for young pupils. The 
relation of direction of the wind to cloudy, rainy, or 
fair weather could readily be educed from the class. 

The time consumed in the kind of lesson above out- 
lined might be objected to by some on the ground of 
the unpractical nature of the subject matter. When 
we consider, however, that utilitarianism is only one 
of the aims of education, and that the only knowl- 



GEOGRAPHY 22'? 

edge of physics which the large number of pupils 
never reaching the high school will ever receive is con- 
tained in lessons like these, the character of the work 
seems to find ample justification. 



CHAPTER XI 

HISTORY 

The Nature of Elementary History. — The require- 
ments of the elementary school oftentimes materially 
affect the character of the various subjects of the cur- 
riculum. Neither geography nor grammar, for in- 
stance, can approximate that degree of exactitude or 
completeness which is essential to their scientific 
phases. Nor would any sane teacher make such an 
attempt. Precisely the same consideration applies to 
elementary history. History as such must conform 
itself to the aims and capabilities of the elementary 
school. What these aims are will be considered in 
detail in the following paragraphs. Here it will suf- 
fice to mention that the conflict between historians as 
to what is the true scientific historical standpoint 
need not seriously concern the elementary teacher. 
The slightest reflection will render it obvious that his- 
tory to be of any value to young pupils must be much 
more than a mere chronicle of events. The historian 's 
unifying personality must supply a substantial matrix 
for the narrative. Of course, the intrusion of such 
personality must not amount to partiality or bigotry. 
It will be readily admitted that this unifying influ- 
ence of a personal viewpoint in a historic work, 

224 



HISTORY 225 

though exactly what the elementary pupil needs, be- 
comes a disadvantage to the post-graduate student or 
college professor. It certainly seems that even the 
latter can scarcely escape a viewpoint, although he 
may regard such escape as a bounden duty of the true 
historian. It is evident, however, that the intellectual 
maturity required for such a mental attitude can 
hardly be found in the youthful minds of elementary 
school pupils. Here the point of view and even the 
emotional tinge must generally be suggested by author 
or teacher. 

All nations which have had any patriotic instincts 
have laid stress upon their own history. In early 
times these quasi-historic records often took the form 
of epic or ballad poetry sung by traveling bards for 
the entertainment or glorification of their royal audit- 
ors. They were handed down by oral tradition and 
in many cases were inextricably interwoven with their 
religious beliefs. The singing and recital of these 
poems undoubtedly exerted a tremendous inspira- 
tional influence. Today every nation insists on in- 
struction in its own history for all the pupils of the 
common schools. As a result of this demand, the ele- 
mentary history course has rather generally assumed 
the character of national history, with only such 
references to foreign history as may be deemed neces- 
sary to supply a background. The importance of 
other values of history study than the mere arousing 
of patriotism has, as we shall see, somewhat changed 
educational opinion in regard to the importance of 
foreign historical study. 



226 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

Utilitarian Value of History. — It is extremely dif- 
ficult if not impossible to draw sharp lines of demar- 
cation between the various values of history. The 
attempt to do so is made here merely for convenience 
of treatment. Surely it is an essentially useful con- 
sequence that a man should so love his native country 
that he would be willing to die in its defense. Yet 
the general character of this value seems to make its 
consideration more appropriate to a discussion of 
morality. 

The principal utilitarian value attaching to the 
study of a nation's history is largely identical with 
that which is derived from any kind of historical 
study. We can only hope to understand the present 
in the light of the past. How could anyone even ap- 
proximate a rational comprehension of modern Eng- 
lish spelling without some knowledge of its historical 
development. The application of evolution to all de- 
partments of science has effected a revolution. Biol- 
ogy, sociology, and even ethics have been tremend- 
ously influenced by modern methods of historical or 
developmental research. Even such an apparently 
simple tool as an axe is best appreciated by a care- 
ful study of its various forms in past ages. Not 
only does such historical method enable us to grasp 
most fully present significance, but, what is still more 
important, it tends to prevent the repetition of what 
the past has absolutely proved to be erroneous. This 
point of view has impressed educators so strongly that 
many have urged that wherever possible pupils should 
learn as the race has learned — the method of re-dis- 



HISTORY 227 

covery. There is much to be said in favor of this view, 
but its full discussion here would carry us too far from 
the subject in hand. 

The reasons discussed above in favor of the histor- 
ical method in all departments of learning apply with 
especial force to the study of the succession of events 
usually designated history. The definite living of the 
past in the present should be emphasized by the 
teacher at every opportunity. The attitude of the 
North and of the South toward the Negro race, for 
example, can be adequately understood only in con- 
nection with the entire history of slavery in the 
United States and particularly the period of the Civil 
War and of Keconstruction. Again, in a democratic 
nation such as ours, it is vitally important that the 
duties and responsibilities of citizenship be under- 
stood. Universal suffrage carries with it the necessity 
of a thorough grasp of the historical development of 
our political institutions. AVithout this historical 
background, the highest type of useful citizenship is 
practically impossible. Especially when we consider 
the cosmopolitan character of our population, and the 
dangers attending unrestricted immigration, does the 
absolute need of such historical study manifest itself. 
It is perhaps no exaggeration to say that the future 
welfare of this nation depends largely upon how the 
school measures up to its responsibilities in the devel- 
opment of a proper historical view point. 

Conventional Value. — When we say that a man is 
well-informed, we naturally assume that his knowledge 
of history, though not necessarily extensive, is com- 



228 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

prehensive. As in geography, so in history, the con- 
ventional value of any topic, other things being equal, 
is inversely as its remoteness in time and place. 
Apart from the utilitarian considerations discussed in 
the preceding paragraph, a man is regarded with a 
measure of contempt if lacking in knowledge of the 
history of his own city, state, or country. The ele- 
mentary school must recognize the importance of this 
fact, and for this reason, if for no other, prevent any 
of its pupils from going into the world ignorant of 
their country's history. For a person not to know 
that Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence 
is certainly as reprehensible as though he were igno- 
rant, say, of the correct spelling of the word disap- 
point. 

The conventional value of history moreover goes be- 
yond the mere narrative of the events of one's own 
country. The history of other nations assumes im- 
portance not only in so far as they are connected with 
that of the United States but also to the extent that 
they are of world wide significance. Napoleon Bona- 
parte, for example, is a much greater figure than his 
connection with the sale of Louisiana or with the War 
of 1812 would lead the pupils to suppose. Moses, Con- 
fucius, Alexander the Great, Julius Cassar, Charle- 
magne, William the Conqueror are but a few examples 
of historical personages of whom no man with any so- 
cial aspirations whatever can afford to be ignorant. 

Much of the conventional value of history, particu- 
larly of the old world but also to some extent of our 
own country, depends upon the light it throws upon 



HISTORY 229 

literature. The correlation between history and lit- 
erature will be fully discussed later in this chapter. 
In this connection it is sufficient to refer to the fact 
that literature old and new teems with allusions to 
historical characters and events. Intelligent reading 
demands that these allusions shall be readily un- 
derstood. Legendary and mythical quasi-historical 
events must also find their place in the elementary 
course if the conventional value of the subject is to 
be adequately recognized. 

Disciplinary Value. — In view of the author's atti- 
tude toward the disciplinary value of school subjects, 
it may appear strange to devote a section to this topic. 
It is perhaps needful to do so on account of preva- 
lent opinions and misunderstandings. It is fre- 
quently urged that history trains the imagination. 
This is- true if the statement is taken to mean noth- 
ing more than that there are abundant opportuni- 
ties in the teaching of history to arouse and exercise 
the pupil's imaginative activity. "We may even go 
further and say that good history teaching necessarily 
involves much constructive imagery on the part of the 
pupils. History lessons are rendered both interest- 
ing and profitable to the extent that verbal descrip- 
tion or narration stirs the imaginative activity of the 
pupils so as to create vivid images. That such ac- 
tivity is necessary to the grasping of history may be 
wisely explained to older children and in this man- 
ner an ideal of attentive constructive processes may 
be formed, an ideal which may readily carry over 
into other subjects. 



230 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

Again, when it is said that history trains judgment 
and reasoning, a similar interpretation is required. 
That history is philosophy teaching by example is a 
profound truth which it would take a philosopher to 
discern. The teacher of history should, however, ap- 
preciate the truth of this maxim and endeavor wher- 
ever possible to show the pupils how clearness of judg- 
ment or foresight produced beneficial effects, and how 
lack of deliberation led to failure. History is full of 
texts for lessons of every description, which if prop- 
erly employed may well influence pupils and lead 
them to the formation of ideals of deliberation, cau- 
tion, consideration of motives, and the like. The im- 
portant point to remember is that these ideals can 
scarcely be trusted to form themselves, but must be 
diligently fostered by the live and sagacious teacher. 
The work of the Constitutional Convention in fram- 
ing the new Constitution on the basis of the imperfect 
Articles of Confederation might wisely be studied in 
considerable detail, if the teacher has in mind the op- 
portunities for the kind of disciplinary value here 
discussed. Similarly the history of slavery and par- 
ticularly the compromises which attempted to avert 
the impending crisis furnish excellent material of the 
same character. 

Moral Value. — There has been considerable differ- 
ence of opinion as to just what responsibility the 
school should assume in regard to the moral educa- 
tion of its pupils, some taking the ground that the 
main work of the school consists of intellectual in- 
struction, while others maintain that, in addition to 



HISTORY 231 

the incidental unconscious influence of school life, 
there should be a definite course in morals. Which- 
ever of these two views we adopt, there is one moral 
sentiment whose nurture the state can justly demand 
as a sort of quid pro quo. This sentiment is patriot- 
ism, with all the implications of the term including its 
various duties and responsibilities as well as the emo- 
tional state of love of country. 

The government of any nation has a perfect right 
to demand of the schools the inculcation of grati- 
tude and affection as a return for the blessings of 
organized rule. The heterogeneous character of our 
population renders this demand conspicuously im- 
portant in our country. Obviously no study in the 
curriculum is so well suited to arouse a patriotic atti- 
tude as history properly taught. The recital of the 
trials and sacrifices of great men and women for the 
good of their country cannot but inspire the youth- 
ful pupils and arouse in them a spirit of emulation. 
Lincoln 's Gettysburg address and the tragic events of 
his death, Washington's part in the formation and 
organization of the new government are two instances 
out of the thousands which force themselves upon the 
reverent attention of the thoughtful students of 
United States history. 

There are some who regard patriotism as a narrow 
virtue, and who maintain that the only ideal worth 
striving for is love of humanity as a whole. Though 
theoretically unassailable from the standpoint of 
ethics, this idealistic view is impracticable for those 
who live in a world such as ours. It represents an 



232 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

ideal to which we may strive to approximate, but one 
which seems millennially distant. Moreover we must 
not forget that the real end of human action does 
not always coincide with the immediate conscious end. 
Those deep feelings which sway us so profoundly in 
the sympathetic atmosphere of family and community 
life probably give an intensity to our actions which 
would be sadly wanting if the feelings were spread 
out thinly over the whole human race. Charity be- 
gins at home is no narrow platitude but expresses a 
profound moral truth. Even rational self love has 
its place in the world's moral organizations. Thus 
the seemingly narrow affections of the family, neigh- 
borhood, city, state, and nation probably produce a 
cumulative moral effect which unconsciously conserves 
the spiritual welfare of humanity. This does not 
mean that the people of one part of the world should 
neglect their unfortunate brothers in other parts. 
The white man's burden is doubtless a real burden, 
which the moral white man must shoulder morally. 
It is an argument, however, against those who belittle 
patriotism as a narrow sentiment. The school can 
legitimately, through its inner social life, demand a 
spirit of loyalty from its pupils, a loyalty which is to 
be regarded as but a stepping stone to that larger loy- 
alty to country, viz., patriotism. 

In addition to the definite inculcation of patriot- 
ism, history has all the moral value derivable from 
the study of biography. The lives of great men and 
women are sources of inspiration in many ways. 
Washington's habits of truthfulness and accuracy in 



HISTORY 233 

their causal relation to his success as a man are 
deeply impressive. So the study of the boyhood of 
our great men as related to their later usefulness is 
of great moral value. The invention of the steam- 
boat and the laying of the trans-Atlantic cable are 
illustrations of historical topics whose use as items 
of information is insignificant as compared with their 
inspirational value. Elementary school children can 
hardly be expected to appreciate the sociological forces 
which are so momentous in the development of the 
world. This furnishes an additional reason for em- 
phasizing the biographical aspect of history, at least 
in the first two or three years of the study. It should 
probably remain largely biographical throughout the 
elementary course. 

The pitiless iconoclasm of modern scientific meth- 
ods of research has played havoc with many of our 
most cherished traditions. History has by no means 
escaped this destructive influence. The true Ben- 
jamin Franklin and the real true Thomas Jefferson 
have well nigh dislocated these two characters from 
their long hallowed niches, leaving some measure of 
scorn and contempt where once were awe and rever- 
ence. Similarly, important historical events such as 
the annexation of Texas, the election of Hayes, etc., 
tend to breed, when accurately told, an emotion quite 
the opposite of affectionate patriotism. This brings 
up the important question as to what should be the at- 
titude of the elementary history teacher toward strict 
historic accuracy when it militates against the moral 
value of the study. We may safely say that this atti- 



234 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

tude should not be in any way cynical or pessimis- 
tic. It is perfectly proper that a child should know 
that men are human sharing in greater or less degree 
the weaknesses of all humanity, and that even our 
own nation to the extent that its guidance is human 
is far from infallible. The unholy joy which some 
critics find in gloating over the weak and evil aspects 
of history certainly has no place in the class room. 
Rather emphasize the good and lovable so that his- 
torical study may ever possess an atmosphere of cheer- 
ful optimism. The post-graduate student of history 
may look sneeringly on such presentation of history, 
but the elementary pupil needs it even though the 
whole truth may sometimes be left untold. 

The foregoing discussion has a definite bearing upon 
the teaching of civics which is often taken up in con- 
nection with history. The ''rottenness" of American 
politics is a theme of which critics both foreign and 
domestic never seem to tire. A cynical indifference 
toward municipal, state, and national corruption has 
too often characterized us as a people. What shall 
be the teacher's attitude in this perplexing situation? 
Schopenhauer's famous criticism of education in gen- 
eral is directly applicable here. This pessimist ar- 
gued, it will be remembered, that the school failed 
in that it built up in the pupil's mind an ideal world 
which never did nor never could exist. As a result, 
when the product of such educational absurdity faces 
the actual world, he soon discovers that it is essen- 
tially different from the schoolmaster's world. He 
either tries to change it to suit the ideal, in which 



HISTORY 235 

attempt he thrusts his head against a rock, or he in- 
dulges in the painful operation of changing his ideas 
to suit the reality. The latter process is difficult 
and discouraging, and often leads to an attitude dis- 
gustingly cynical and exaggerated. We may, of 
course, make a considerable discount on the opinions 
of the man who observed and recorded the fact that 
while every rose has a thorn, there is many a thorn 
without a rose. Nevertheless, pessimism properly un- 
derstood is wholesome medicine for the educator. It 
is pedagogically wrong to give youth the impression 
that the theory of democracy underlying our govern- 
ment is practically and consistently carried out. Bet- 
ter let them understand the dangers and evils of our 
system, so that they may be impressed with a full 
sense of their moral responsibilities as citizens, and 
thus be able to take an intelligent part in that im- 
portant business of every American — politics. Above 
all, avoid the hopeless cynicism which if not energet- 
ically combatted bids fair to undermine the greatest 
nation which the world has yet developed. 

The History Teacher. — It goes without saying that 
the first qualification for a teacher of any subject is 
intimate knowledge of that subject. This is particu- 
larly difficult where the teachers are not specialists, 
a condition prevailing in the vast majority of our ele- 
mentary schools. A live teacher of geography, for 
instance, should not only be' widely read, but also 
widely traveled. This is true to a large extent of 
the teacher of history as well. The sabbatical year 
for elementary teachers, accompanied by a sabbatical 



236 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

salary, is a desideratum today. Intelligent travel vivi- 
fies historical knowledge in a way which cannot be ac- 
complished by any amount of reading. In lieu of 
travel, however, extensive reading is valuable. Ef- 
fective history teaching demands that the teacher be 
full of her subject. Only in this way can there be 
secured for the narrative a setting which will stir 
the imaginative activity of the pupils and furnish the 
necessary emotional atmosphere. The teacher of his- 
tory whose knowledge is bounded by the covers of 
the text-book will in all probability find the work dull 
for herself and for her pupils. A fund of anecdote 
and illustration is nowhere so necessary as in the 
teaching of this subject. With a clear grasp of the 
distinct values of history, she will be enabled to cull 
from her vast store of information descriptions and 
narratives which will definitely secure the end to be 
attained. Attendance upon lectures, active reading 
circle work, copious research will all be found help- 
ful. The greatest argument for departmental work in 
the elementary schools is probably furnished by the 
necessary equipment of the successful teacher of his- 
tory. 

Pre-Text-book History. — No history text-book is 
needed in the first two or three years of school life. 
This does not mean that the pupil is to remain igno- 
rant of his country's history. On the contrary, his- 
tory and civics as well should begin in the very first 
grade if not in the kindergarten. The narrative of 
our nation's growth is intensely interesting and can 
readily be told in such simple form that very young 



HISTORY 237 

children can understand it. The inculcation of pa- 
triotism is an essential aim of this part of the work. 

In most American cities, the anniversaries of great 
historical events are made the occasion of suitable 
school celebrations. Frequently a school holiday is al- 
lowed, in which the state, oblivious of its educational 
duties, often misses opportunities for impressing the 
rising generation with high civic or partiotic ideals. 
Such holidays tend to degenerate into romps and jolli- 
fications in which the last thing thought of is the his- 
toric significance of the day. Recently there has been 
a marked tendency to bring about a rational improve- 
ment of these occasions. 

The school, however, attempts to make up for the 
negligence of Jhe state. Where a holiday is granted, 
a portion of the previous day is usually set aside for 
appropriate exercises. On these occasions partiotic 
songs are sung by the pupils, addresses are delivered, 
pictures are exhibited, selections recited and essays 
read. The last mentioned feature is frequently ill- 
advised. Care should be taken that the essay is of 
an appealing and intelligible character, and if a pupil 
is selected to read it, there must be no doubt that it 
will be read clearly and impressively. This is an ex- 
tremely important consideration as dulness in such 
exercises is fatal. Moreover, the program must be 
sufficiently varied and not too long. Better send the 
pupils home wishing they could have had more than 
glutted with an over-sufficiency. If a speaker is in- 
vited to address the young children, it is not enough 
that he or she be a prominent citizen of the commu- 



238 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

nity. The ability to talk entertainingly to young 
pupils is the sine qua -non. Even governors and 
mayors, not to mention councilmen and school direc- 
tors, are often sadly deficient in this power. The 
principal or one of the teachers in the school is often 
a far happier selection than persons of much greater 
prominence. 

Using historic anniversaries in the manner here in- 
dicated has the advantage of providing what Her- 
bartians term a core of concentration. The historic 
events are associated with the interesting and novel 
features of the celebration, and thus tend to be more 
firmly organized. For young children especially, one 
of the most impressive features of such exercises 
is dramatic representation. The dramatic instinct is 
strong in the young, and there could be no more in- 
teresting way of presenting historical events than by 
having the pupils themselves, and as many of them as 
possible, participate in the exercises. The alert 
leacher will find it extremely interesting to devise 
such dramatic features and will be amply rewarded 
for her trouble by the intellectual as well as emotional 
effects upon her pupils. 

Historical narratives, particularly those dealing with 
biography, should form a considerable part of the 
subject matter of oral and written language. No set 
forms should be required, but the pupil should be en- 
couraged to weave the narrative in an original way. 
Formal demands in this work are deadening. It is 
not so much accurate grasp of historic details as it is 
emotional and intelligent appreciation which the 



HISTORY 239 

teacher should strive to develop. The committing of 
poetical selections of real literary merit and suffi- 
ciently easy of comprehension is a valuable form of 
pre-text-book history. Emerson's Concord Hymn 
is a good example. In such memorizing work, it is by 
no means necessary that every word should be thor- 
oughly understood. The process of learning words is 
often analogous to the placing of labels on bottles 
whose contents time alone will dissolve or crystal- 
lize. 

History and Literature. — The correlation between his- 
tory and literature implied in the latter part of the 
preceding paragraph is of far-reaching importance in 
the elementary school. It is very hard to determine 
at times whether a certain work should be classed as 
history or as literature. Even defining literature 
strictly as that form of writing whose main purpose 
is to give pleasure, it would seem inaccurate to ex- 
clude such works as, e. g., Fiske 's delightful historical 
studies. Any history which purports to be more than 
mere annals perforce has a literary aspect. 

Not only in the pre-text-book grades, but throughout 
the course should poetry and song form a part of the 
work in history. The Greeks may have had a keener 
appreciation of music than is given to us moderns, 
but we today are forced to share with them the deep 
regard for the moral influence of song. There is 
scarcely anything so inspiring as a group of children 
singing the national airs of their country. We do 
not deceive ourselves when we attribute the rousing 
of patriotic fervor to indulgence in such exercises, 



240 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

and not the least of their by-products is the sense of 
social solidarity which means so much for later 
united action. The Marseillaise was by no means a 
negligible factor of the French Revolution. The texts 
of the songs should be thoroughly explained to the 
pupils, not only to secure historic correlation, but to 
ensure a deeper appreciation of their sentiment. Un- 
sung poetry has not nearly the same sentimental value 
as the song, but its correlative value is not to be dis- 
regarded. It would be well for the teacher to collate 
poetry of historical significance adapted to the work 
of the grade. Excellent collections of this character 
have doubtless been made in various places, and 
teachers should push the good work along by letting 
others know what they have achieved. Longfellow's 
Skeleton in Armor, for example, is splendid literary 
work for a class studying the Norse voyages. Holmes 's 
Old Ironsides is equally as effective in connection with 
the War of 1812. The intrinsic literary value of such 
poetry amply justifies its use as reading material apart 
from any other consideration. 

In the field of prose literature, there is abundant 
opportunity for historical correlation, although its 
sentimental or emotional value is probably not so 
great as that of poetry. The writings of Prescott, 
Parkman, and Fiske may profitably be read to elemen- 
tary pupils. The wise teacher will, of course, mark 
her copies of these books in advance so that the selec- 
tions read may be in every way suitable. Older pupils 
should be encouraged to read these works for them- 
selves, and they should certainly be upon the shelves 



HISTORY 241 

of every well equipped school library. The historical 
novel is also a rich field for literary correlation. Such 
novels are of course good, bad, and indifferent, and the 
teacher must guide the pupils to a proper selection. 
What this kind of literature lacks in historic ac- 
curacy, it makes up for in emotional interest. How 
many men and women of today are indebted to Dumas, 
for example, for their knowledge of the interesting 
period of French history treated by this picturesque 
novelist! The Crisis and The Fair God may be men- 
tioned as the kind of historic novel which should ap- 
peal to the older student of history in the elementary 
school. 

Objective Methods.— The perceptual vividness given 
by actual observation is almost as essential to history 
as to geography, but somewhat more difficult to secure. 
Geography is descriptive of the w T orld as it is, and 
so all its factors are more or less accessible. History 
deals almost entirely with the past w T hich must per- 
force be imaged rather than observed. It is impor- 
tant, therefore, to remember the intensifying character 
of the perceptive factor in imagery. The actual 
ground on which a battle was fought, the inkstand 
used in signing the Declaration of Independence, the 
flag that was captured at Yorktown, etc., give a rich 
emotional basis for realizing the past. The reverent 
guardianship of the Liberty Bell in the Philadelphia 
State House is amply justified from educational if 
from no other considerations. 

The teacher of history should familiarize herself 
with various points of historic interest accessible to the 



242 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

pupils of her community. Excursions to such places 
should form a regular part of the school work. The 
cautions and directions in regard to geographical ex- 
cursions apply with equal force here. An important 
difference, however, is found in the reverential atti- 
tude which should characterize the historical trip. It 
should have little if any of the character of a jaunt or 
picnic. Whatever jollity may intrude itself upon the 
occasion should be kept separate and distinct from its 
historical bearings. 

Further objective assistance can be rendered the 
imaginative activity of the pupils by the use of lan- 
tern views and other pictorial representations. A 
central library of such helps should be accessible to all 
teachers, and they should be encouraged to use them. 
The teacher herself should be on the lookout for strik- 
ing or appropriate prints which should form part of 
her material equipment. 

Though not strictly or entirely an objective method, 
the use of original sources in teaching elementary his- 
tory has an analogous effect in the intensifying of 
pupils' impressions. The fact of secession, for ex- 
ample, becomes real when we see a copy of the original 
Charleston newspaper with its glaring head lines 
announcing the revolutionary action of the South 
Carolina legislature. Some time ago I saw a program 
of the theatrical performance during which Lincoln 
met his doom. On it was the announcement that the 
President would occupy a box that evening. The real- 
ization of that tragic circumstance was borne more 
deeply upon my mind than ever before. Original 



HISTORY 243 

sources of this kind have all the objective force of 
swords, chairs, clothes, etc., mentioned in the preced- 
ing paragraphs. The actual manuscript journals of 
the voyages of Columbus must vividly impress him who 
is fortunate enough to obtain a view of them. 

Where the original is inaccessible or would be un- 
intelligible to the ordinary student, facsimiles or 
printed reproductions are valuable. The sagas of Lief 
or the narrations of Marco Polo furnish interesting 
and helpful historical material. Of course, the ele- 
mentary teacher's attitude toward such historical 
sources is quite different from that of the historian. 
Still less can the pupil be expected to examine and 
analyze such sources with critical acumen. Their 
place in the course is justified almost entirely by their 
vivifying influence. Various excellent collections of 
source material have been made which the history 
teacher could very profitably peruse. Hart's splendid 
American History Told by Contemporaries is one of 
the best of these historic anthologies. Mary Sheldon 
Barnes has attempted, and the result has been quite 
successful, to build an elementary text-book out of 
original sources. The pointed and realistic excerpts 
have been pieced together and connected by just 
enough commentary to give them an excellent peda- 
gogic setting. I do not know of any other author 
who has carried out this idea so consistently. It is 
difficult to conceive of any text intended for elemen- 
tary pupils which would be more realistic and enter- 
taining. 

Organization of Historical Facts. — The proper com- 



244 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

prehension of the facts of history demands consider- 
able mental organization of the pupil's knowledge. 
The events of the narrative must not stand out sepa- 
rately but should be grasped as links of a logical chain 
of causes and effects. This end can be secured to some 
extent by the use of the Socratic method. Question the 
pupils as to what they think would be the natural 
outcome of a certain event, e. g., the Kansas-Nebraska 
bill, making them state their reasons. Then compare 
their answers with the actual historic sequence. Lead 
them to see where their reasoning was faulty or their 
premises inadequate or defective. Historical knowl- 
edge gained in this way will be richer and more lasting. 
Or reverse the process and institute a regressive 
search for the causes of a given event, e. g., the failure 
of the Spanish to compete with the English in the 
colonization of America. A comparison between 
Sunday observance in New England and in the Middle 
West, the pupils tracing the causes of the difference, 
is another illustration of the kind of work here sug- 
gested. The mental organization derived from such 
exercises means real education in a sense very dif- 
ferent from that supposed to attach to the ability to 
recite glibly a series of events. 

The step of preparation is exceedingly important 
in connection with the proper organization of his- 
torical knowledge. The facts of previous lessons, 
which furnish the causal considerations for the new 
lesson, must be intensified by the influence of recency. 
The definite statement of the aim also becoms a vital 
factor in mental organization. It provides a schema 



HISTORY 245 

or plan in which the new work may find its appro- 
priate place. Teachers should pay especial attention 
to this aspect of their preparatory lesson. Its neglect 
means failure. Not the least of the values of the state- 
ment of the aim is that it necessitates definite plan- 
ning by the teacher. 

Mental organization may be furthered by the use of 
blackboard outlines or syllabi. It is a great aid to the 
pupils' grasp of a mass of details to have ever present 
in graphic form with their relationship indicated the 
salient points of a lesson. Modern educators appre- 
ciate the value of such perceptual frame-work and 
often precede their discourse by printed or mimeo- 
graphed syllabi distributed among the audience. The 
blackboard outlines for class work are most effective 
when they have been worked out by teacher and pupils 
together. 

The reviews which most teachers find necessary to 
insure the retention of history afford splendid oppor- 
tunity for organizing the pupils' knowledge. A re- 
view which simply re-states the facts may claim the as- 
sociative force of repetition, but its lack of intensity 
and emotional dulness make it a weariness to the spirit 
of both teacher and pupil. In review, the subject 
matter should be treated in fresh guise. Where the 
first study of a given period follows a chronological 
sequence, its review should be largely topical. As a 
result, there is secured a certain novelty of presenta- 
tion as well as apperceptive systematization. A splen- 
did way of unifying the elementary pupil's knowledge 
of United States history is to permit him to spend the 



246 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

last term of his course in a complete review of the sub- 
ject based on important topics. Particularly valuable 
is such a topical resume if, as is often the case, the 
study of United States history is concluded in the 
elementary school. Such topics as Progress of Science 
and Art, Political History, Growth in Territory and 
Population, etc., are useful as bases for apperceptive 
systems of a comprehensive character. 1 The pupil 
should, so far as possible, collate the related facts for 
himself, but the comparatively immature minds of 
elementary school children will need, for the proper 
management of good topical reviews, much help from 
teacher and text-book. Blackboard outlines in con- 
nection with this work will be found of even greater 
value than in the presentation as discussed in the 
previous paragraph. 

Type Method. — So great is the amount of detail 
which presses for consideration in the teaching of his- 
tory, that the teacher is forced to give much thought 
and careful deliberation to the planning of her work. 
What may safely be omitted becomes a most important 
question. A solution of this vexing problem, and one 
that has excellent psychological justification, is found 
in the use of the type method. This method has been 
described in Chapter III. and illustrated in its appli- 
cation to geography in Chapter VII. As employed in 
connection with history, its purpose is not so much 
the formation of concepts as it is the presentation of 

i An attempt to work out a text book along these lines has 
been made in A Brief Topical Survey of United States History 
by Dr. Oliver P. Cornman and the author. 



HISTORY 247 

a complete descriptive picture of an historical proce- 
dure, a picture which can be mentally recalled and 
modified to suit other cases. Early voyages of dis- 
covery and exploration, for instance, had many points 
of resemblance. They were all characterized by the 
uncertainties and dangers of wind propelled vessels, 
the absence of modern instruments of navigation, ig- 
norance of geographical facts and conditions, hard- 
ships due to improper food and water, etc. On the 
side of those who undertook the voyages, there was 
likewise a great similarity of motives: — discovery of 
new routes, commercial advantages, desire for con- 
quest, love of adventure, geographical curiosity, desire 
for wealth, and religious zeal. Of course these mo- 
tives entered in varying degrees as actuating factors of 
specific voyages, and never were all combined in any 
particular case. The first voyage of Columbus, the 
circumnavigation of the globe by Magellan 's fleet, and 
the explorations by Marquette and La Salle could ad- 
vantageously be taught in great detail, as they would 
furnish ample type lessons. Original sources, used in 
the manner above indicated, should be employed to 
vivify the impressions. The graphic presentation of 
these few voyages would permit considerable brevity 
in the treatment of the others. For the latter the 
statement of motives and results would probably be 
sufficient, always, however, with the assurance that 
the pupils hold in mind the pictorial and emotional 
aspects of the type presentations. The same method 
of procedure is applicable to the teaching of a battle. 
It is probably essential to the realistic comprehension 



2-18 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

of history that the pupils should have some definite 
idea of warfare. If the school is situated in easy ex- 
cursion distance of an important battle field, such as 
Gettysburg, for instance, a well- planned trip to the 
scene of action would certainly be advisable. The 
plan of campaign, the movements of the armies, the 
field tactics of the generals, etc., should receive ample 
detailed treatment, maps, charts, and pictures adding 
objective intensification. Such thorough-going treat- 
ment of one battle would probably suffice as a type les- 
son. Similarly with the numerous treaties which have 
been made in the course of our nation's history. It 
is perhaps desirable that the exact procedure in treaty 
making should be known to the older elementary pu- 
pils. The Oregon Boundary Treaty would furnish a 
good topic for a type lesson, after which all other 
treaties studied could be taken merely in connection 
with the disputes or purposes causing them. 

The History Text-Book — In the fourth school year 
or perhaps earlier a good text-book will be found help- 
ful. The biographic treatment should be adhered to, 
and the style should be simple, picturesque, and ap- 
pealing. Such a text should not be used for purposes 
of study, but rather for silent or oral reading after 
the lesson has been taught. In other words, the text- 
book in the early grades should become a sort of sup- 
plementary reader. Its purpose is to provide for the 
interesting fixing of the pupil's knowledge and for 
its fuller organization. No actual study or memoriz- 
ing of any portion of the text is desirable, unless the 
book contain some poetical selections which it is well 



HISTORY 219 

for the pupil to commit to memory. History texts for 
young children should provide well selected material 
of this character. 

As the pupil advances in the grades, the text-book 
should have less the character of a reader and become 
more of a study book. It should, however, remain 
largely supplementary to the work of the teacher. 
That is, it should follow the various forms of presenta- 
tion outlined above, objective teaching, type method, 
etc. But the older pupil should be required to do 
more than merely read the text. Definite assignments 
should be made for home and school study. Linking 
the teacher's presentation and the pupil's study, there 
might well come a suggestive outline consisting per- 
haps entirely of questions, which would serve to give 
much-needed definiteness to the work of the pupils. 
The lack of such definiteness, particularly in a de- 
scriptive subject like history, is the chief evil of much 
of our present day study assignments. Requiring the 
pupil to fill in the outline or to answer its questions 
in writing is a convenient way of insuring and testing 
the study work. 

Certainly in the high school and perhaps in the 
highest elementary grades assignments may sometimes 
be made of portions of the text not previously taught. 
The teaching in this case is supplementary and usually 
partakes of the nature of oral discussion or testing 
recitation. Such work, cautiously and wisely done, has 
great value. It enables the pupil to dig out informa- 
tion from a text through his own self-activity. He 
may often wish to instruct himself in this manner in 



250 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

after life. It is eminently proper that the school 
should attempt to stand the pupil upon his own feet, 
and that the good teacher should, as Dr. Brumbaugh 
has expressed it, become ' ' increasingly unnecessary. ' ' 
The study of an untaught text, however, demands more 
deliniteness than is required by supplementary study. 
The pupils should be taught how to study, should 
be required to make abstracts and outlines, and clearly 
shown the importance of discriminating between the 
essentials and the non-essentials. 

Historical Map Drawing. — As before indicated, there 
are numerous opportunities for correlation between 
history and geography. Every map that is drawn in 
connection with historical study becomes in a degree 
a fixing lesson in geography as well. The habit of 
close observation which was referred to as an impor- 
tant value of map drawing in the chapter on geogra- 
phy applies here with equal force. In addition to 
contour, locations, etc., the graphic representation of 
historical facts, scrutinized closely enough to be re- 
produced by the pupils, forms an excellent method of 
concentrating attention. 

When Lessing, in the Laocoon, made his famous dis- 
tinction between poetry and painting, the former hav- 
ing an essentially narrative and the latter an essen- 
tially descriptive character, he did not give sufficient 
attention to the unifying power of pictorial represen- 
tation. Of course a narrative is essentially serial, 
events following one another in logical or chrono- 
logical sequence. To understand the interdependence 
of narrative events, however, it is necessary to grasp 



HISTORY 251 

them more or less simultaneously. This the historical 
map enables us to do. A map, for instance, of the 
various acquisitions of territory by the United States 
unifies this narrative series in an emphatic manner. 
Similarly a map or chart showing the western move- 
ment of the center of population gives simultaneity 
and organization to the general facts. Similar con- 
siderations justify the extensive use of curves in ex- 
hibiting various dynamic phenomena. Again, much 
of history is descriptive, and here the graphic repre- 
sentation of map or drawing is particularly desirable. 
The study of a map showing the various European 
possessions in North America at the close of the French 
and Indian War is by far the best way of acquiring 
a knowledge of the circumstances. 

Since the purpose of historical map drawing and 
study is primarily historical and in but a slight degree 
geographical, extensive use should be made of out- 
line maps. The drawing of contours, rivers, etc., is 
indeed somewhat distracting. Excellent outline maps 
for historical purposes are now procurable at very 
low prices. There should be in every school an abun- 
dant supply available for every teacher of history. 

The Teaching of Wars. — This is an important ele- 
ment of historical study which, on account of its 
unique position, has been reserved for separate treat- 
ment. Of course, the history of our country would be 
very inadequately understood if the important con- 
sideration of its wars was omitted. This subject has, 
very naturally and properly, an appealing attractive- 
ness to young and old. The fighting instinct is uni- 



252 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

versal. Every inch of progress of which our civiliza- 
tion boasts has been dearly paid for in blood. The 
undeniable disparity between individual and national 
morality complicates the teaching of this subject, 
especially when we have regard for the moral value 
of history. The high ethical doctrine of the non-re- 
sistance of evil is difficult to reconcile with our past 
and present attitude toward national customs and 
ideals. The child is early trained to refrain from 
nails, teeth and fists in the settlement of disputes, and 
still the world looks on complacently enough while the 
great nations increase their armaments. Whatever the 
theoretic attitude may be, practically we seem very 
far removed from universal disarmament. It is one 
of those decisions demanding a unanimous vote. The 
so-called yellow peril seems much more than a nursery 
bug-a-boo, and will doubtless increase the white man's 
burden for decades if not centuries, a burden which 
seems to demand for its adequate support, shells and 
bullets, floating and flying forts. 

There is, of course, no doubt that peaceful arbitra- 
tion represents an ideal to which all should strive 
to approximate, and the last half-century has wit- 
nessed wonderful strides in this direction. The moral 
obligation of the school seems plain. The impression- 
able mind of the elementary pupil should be trained to 
loathe the hellishness of modern warfare. The wars 
which have been averted in our own history through 
arbitration and treaty should be used as moral texts, 
so that the men and women of the next generation 
may further the work of peace. The Hague Peace 



HISTORY 253 

Conference and its results should be made subjects 
of special study. With this aim in view, it would 
seem desirable to teach wars in such a way that their 
horror should receive emphasis. 

There is, however, another point of view which may 
not be safely disregarded. "Warfare has not yet been 
eliminated, and this desirable consummation will prob- 
ably not be attained in the near future. The demands 
of patriotism not only require that we reverence those 
who sacrificed their lives for their country, but also 
that the boys of today who will be the men of to- 
morrow must be willing, when the occasion arises, to 
make similar sacrifices. It would be a mistake to 
create such a loathing of war that we should be in 
danger of developing a race of cowards. The wise and 
patriotic teacher must make a compromise between 
these two opposite points of view. While giving due 
prominence to the moral aspects of peaceful arbitra- 
tion, she must not overlook the practical side of the 
inculcation of a devout patriotism. 

Current Events. — Not a day passes but what some 
interesting and record-worthy event transpires. Peri- 
odical literature of all descriptions attempts to ac- 
quaint the reading public with up-to-date news of 
science, art, literature, history, etc., so that no im- 
portant happening should be withheld for a longer 
period than a month. The newspaper endeavors to 
publish everything of a novel or striking character so 
promptly that chagrin is felt if even an hour's delay 
intervenes between the event and its publication. 

The live teacher of history must keep in close touch 



254 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

with current events. In some schools, teachers have 
adopted the plan of meeting once a week for the discus- 
sion of the week's news with special reference to that 
portion of it which may be utilized in the class-room. 
Historic news of such a character would naturally be 
taught best in its proper connection. The habit of 
treating current events, including all sorts of happen- 
ings, scientific, geographical, historical, etc., as a kind 
of distinct curricular subject is not to be recommended. 
They all may, in a sense, be regarded as material for 
oral and written language exercises, but due considera- 
tion of their content would demand the development 
of appropriate apperceptive systems. Of course, 
where the events are of far-reaching importance and 
great conventional value the school principal may 
feel it desirable to give the information at once to all 
the pupils. This may be impressively done in connec- 
tion with the opening exercises. What is objected to 
here is the method of purveying small pieces of un- 
related news day after day, producing, as it were, a 
kind of intellectual hash. 

In so far as a knowledge of current events is to be 
obtained by the pupils themselves, consideration must 
be had for their age. The modern newspaper, with 
its commercial instinct so often outweighing ethical 
and aesthetic ideals, is regarded bj T many as a danger- 
ous kind of reading material for children. The racy 
and often sensational character of the news and com- 
ments, while it may reflect the demands of public 
taste, is frequently quite the opposite of uplifting. 
The vividness of impression which was discussed in 



HISTORY 255 

connection with the educational value of original 
source study applies with particular force to news- 
paper reading. Perhaps the teacher can make a com- 
promise so as to avoid the moral danger and still 
secure the educational advantages. A solution may 
be found in the fact that there are newspapers and 
newspapers, and it is a legitimate function of the 
teacher to give the pupils a guiding principle of 
selection. This is as much her duty as it is for her 
to attempt to direct them to wholesome food, pure 
air, good books, and proper theatrical performances. 
Moreover, giving the pupils a plan or method of read- 
ing a newspaper is by no means an unimportant part 
of elementary education. 



CHAPTER XII 
PHYSIOLOGY 

What It Is. — I have used the term Physiology as 
the title of this chapter in deference to prevalent cus- 
tom. Neither in school courses nor in this discussion 
is the subject limited to bodily functioning but in- 
cludes anatomy and hygiene as well. Human biology 
might be a happier designation for this work, al- 
though it sounds too profound and comprehensive for 
the name of an elementary school subject. The word 
hygiene alone is sometimes used, and although it em- 
phasizes what many regard as the justification of the 
whole subject in the elementary curriculum, it is too 
narrow when we consider the entire aim of the course. 
This branch has a peculiar position in the elementary 
courses of many states, its study being demanded of 
the schools by legislative enactment. 

Utilitarian Value. — There is nothing traditional 
about the subject-matter nor the method of teaching 
physiology in the elementary schools. Unlike arith- 
metic and grammar, it has been deliberately planned 
and placed in the course as a result of public senti- 
ment backed up by legislative and educational man- 
date. Although educators have long regarded physi- 
cal education as of supreme importance, it has been 

256 



PHYSIOLOGY 257 

only in comparatively recent years that this opinion 
has gained sufficient momentum to overcome the tradi- 
tional intellectualism of the schools. Herbert Spencer, 
it will be recalled, in his essay on "What Knowledge 
Is of Most Worth?" gives a prominent place to the 
value of physiology as the science, knowledge of which 
is necessitated by rational self-preservation. There 
would probably be universal agreement among educa- 
tors today that the preservation of health is the 
principal argument for the retention of physiology 
in the elementary curriculum. More specifically the 
evil effects of indulgence in alcoholic liquors and nar- 
cotics have induced a world-wide propaganda which 
has been directly responsible for the introduction of 
physiology in the schools of many states. Just how 
the teaching of this subject may help in the formation 
of hygienic habits will be considered in some detail 
later in this chapter. 

Conventional Value. — Those who find the justification 
of anatomy and physiology in the school course merely 
in their relation to hygiene overlook the undoubted 
conventional value of these subjects. This value prob- 
ably comes out more prominently here than in the 
case of history or geography. Our bodies are our 
earthly dwelling places and form a quite important 
feature of the landscape of home geography. The 
sage's "Know thyself," although primarily intended 
probably to apply to the spirit, is equally applicable 
to the body. Knowledge of the structure and use of 
the shoulder joint is more likely to be demanded in 
the ordinary intercourse of life than the ability to 



258 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

name the countries crossed by the Equator or the 
events of Monroe's administration, and this entirely 
apart from any useful application of the information. 
Of course, by no means equal conventional value at- 
taches to all the details of anatomy and physiology. 
That the spinal column consists of a number of hollow 
bones surrounding the spinal cord every human ver- 
tebrate should know. Their exact number and desig- 
nations are not equally important items of informa- 
tion. For a wise selection of topics based upon their 
conventional value, the teacher must rely largely on 
a good text-book supplemented by her own common 
sense. 

Literary allusions also render some knowledge of 
anatomy and physiology desirable. Holmes's Living 
Temple is an extreme illustration. But frequent 
references to various details of human functioning 
and structure abound in both poetry and prose. Some 
of the most exquisite passages of Tennyson, for ex- 
ample, can be appreciated only with the help of such 
knowledge. 

Theoretic Value. — There are many parts of these 
sciences which have neither sufficient utilitarian nor 
conventional value to justify their inclusion in the 
course. They are useful, however, in giving a setting 
for otherwise valuable facts, or in rendering various 
processes intelligible. As we shall see in the following 
paragraphs, the building up of hygienic habits on the 
basis of physiological knowledge demands that this 
knowledge should be richer and more complete than 
would ordinarily seem necessary. 



PHYSIOLOGY 259 

Objective Methods. — The discussion of objective 
methods in connection with geography applies with 
equal force to the subjects now under consideration. 
Excursions, however, are scarcely demanded as the 
objects of study can usually be brought into the class- 
room. In fact, the pupils themselves bring many of 
these objects on their persons, although they are gener- 
ally concealed from view. There is some question as 
to how far this objective presentation should include 
the exhibition and dissection of various organs. 
Teachers can scarcely be expected to do such work ef- 
fectively, and consideration must also be had for in- 
jurious emotional effects. Most school girls and many 
school boys would find the dissection of a sheep's 
heart or lungs rather revolting. Where this result 
can be avoided, intensity is given to the impressions 
by the actual observation and handling of bones, mus- 
cles, tendons, etc. The working apparatus of the 
physiology teacher should include large models of the 
various organs, as well as good pictorial representa- 
tions and diagrams. For elementary pupils, a good 
anatomical model is often more effective than the ac- 
tual object. 

The correlation of physiology and physics should be 
emphasized objectively and experimentally. It has 
seemed to the author that it might even be desirable 
to include in the elementary course such experimental 
work in physics as is required for the intelligent ap- 
preciation of both geography and physiology. It 
could be made simple and interesting, and there would 
be a decided psychological advantage in having the 



260 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

pupil's knowledge of physics form an apperceptive 
system of its own. Whatever may be thought of this 
suggestion, ' there is no doubt that such subjects as 
respiration, digestion, and perspiration are best under- 
stood when shown as applications of simple physical 
and chemical laws. Interesting experiments in atmos- 
pheric pressure requiring but little apparatus form an 
interesting perceptual basis for the comprehension of 
the phenomena of breathing. The relation of evapora- 
tion to the regulation of the bodily heat can readily 
be made clear by a preparatory lesson in experimental 
physics. Similarly the inability of carbonic acid gas 
to support combustion is vividly shown by means of 
such simple apparatus as a tumbler, some vinegar, 
baking soda, and a lighted taper. Every successful 
teacher of elementary physiology should have a work- 
ing knowledge of simple experimental physics. If this 
has not been derived from her normal training, she 
must bestir herself to gain it in some other way. Ham- 
let 's advice, "Assume a virtue if you have it not," 
should be taken to heart by every live teacher. 

The Formation of Healthful Habits. — There is no 
doubt that the formation of healthful bodily habits 
is the principal, and, among many educators, the sole 
justification of anatomy and physiology in the elemen- 
tary school. Such habits may be fostered in various 
ways, some through the influence of the teacher, most, 
however, through the pupil 's home life. 

Many bodily habits are instinctive and directly con- 
nected with self-preservation. The protective closing 
of the eyes, the movements of sucking, etc., are either 



PHYSIOLOGY 261 

present at birth or very early selected and fixed from 
multiple reflex responses. There are, however, many 
exceedingly useful habits which have to be acquired. 
Some of them belong absolutely to the home. Regu- 
larity of bowel movements, bodily cleanliness, care of 
the teeth are a few illustrations of habits which should 
have been crystallized in the child's home long before 
he reaches school age. In addition there might be 
mentioned proper positions in sitting and standing, 
bedroom ventilation, slow mastication, etc. 

The important question here for education is the 
determination of the school's attitude toward the 
habits which have not been formed in the home. The 
tendency today is to hold the school responsible for 
such functions as are conspicuously neglected by the 
other educational institutions — the home, church, state, 
and vocation. The modern school can no longer 
silently ignore decayed teeth, poor eyesight, mouth 
breathing, etc. So broad has become the scope of the 
school that it is forced to call to its aid various forces, 
civic and social. Medical inspection is now a feature 
of almost all progressive school systems. It has been 
brought about not only to aid the individual sufferer 
but also to protect the community from the spread of 
disease. Such medical inspection supplemented by 
follow-up work of nurses has exerted a direct bene- 
ficial influence upon the home. Indeed, in many cases, 
the school has been used as a place of training for ig- 
norant parents. In this work the class teacher takes 
little or no part. It is completely managed by special- 
ists — physicians and nurses. The teacher, by her in- 



262 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

terest, attention, and subsequent inquiries among the 
pupils, can do much to aid the beneficent outcome of 
the work. 

Some writers and lecturers on hygiene attach con- 
siderable importance to the deterrent influence of fear 
as a means of preventing various evil practices. 
While probably of some value, the appeal to this 
motive is easily overdone. That natural laws are in- 
exorable is a profound truth which we all learn sooner 
or later. It is, however, extremely doubtful whether 
elementary pupils are mature enough to grasp the 
import of this truth. Fear of consequences as a reason 
for avoiding certain kinds of conduct is always open 
to the objection that the chance of escaping detec- 
tion gives a degree of zest to the act. This is par- 
ticularly true where the main penalty is the disap- 
proval of one's fellows. The bare-foot boy who was 
expected to indulge in regular nocturnal washing of 
these extremities or risk the penalty of a spanking 
often weighed the chances of detection, omitted the irk- 
some ablution, and not infrequently "got away with 
it." So, even when Nature is regarded as the ma- 
ternal spanker, there is often the desire to "get away 
with it." Another weakness of the appeal to the 
emotion of fear as a deterrent is the fact that the evil 
consequences are felt to be, and often are, grossly ex- 
aggerated. The "terrible example" is apt to be re- 
garded as a kind of impossible caricature. Such 
exaggerations, moreover, often do much harm. The 
germ of truth is liable to be completely swallowed up 
in the caricature, and the whole effect of the teaching 



PHYSIOLOGY 263 

is lost. The boy who daily sees his father drink liquor 
with his meals, and smoke a pipe or cigar will prob- 
ably treat as a joke any extreme or injudicious teach- 
ing of the terrible consequences of these habits. 

It is not intended to imply that the influence of fear 
as an inhibitive factor is to be disregarded. The 
above discussion applies only to its unwise or exag- 
gerated use. All through life a wholesome fear of 
foreseen consequences of wrong acts is an indispens- 
able motive. The expression, "A God fearing man," 
epitomizes conscientiousness from the religious view- 
point. Both the physical and social sanctions of hu- 
man life are important levers of moral conduct. 
Dread of evil consequences, wisely developed, is, as we 
shall see, an essential factor in the teaching of hy- 
giene. 

The healthful habits which can be developed by 
direct practice in the class-room are not many. Clean- 
liness, at least of the visible parts of the body, can 
and should be insisted upon. In some of the poorer 
sections of large cities, school baths form part of 
the physical curriculum. It is extremely doubtful 
whether, in this generation at least, the practice will 
be more than sporadic. So far as food is concerned, 
many teachers find their principal work to consist in 
eliminating it from the class room. The plan of pro- 
viding wholesome school lunches, however, may be re- 
garded as a means of forming good habits, and as a 
formal exercise in developing taste and judgment in 
regard to the selection of food. Lessons in cooking 
also constitute a means of direct influence in hygienic 



264 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

science. Proper positions in sitting and standing, 
breathing exercises, and gymnastic drills receive con- 
siderable attention in the elementary school. Hy- 
gienic habits may reasonably be expected to follow 
the wise employment of such exercises. 

Most of the useful healthful habits cannot receive 
sufficient direct practice in the school. This does not 
mean that they should be neglected there. On the con- 
trary, it becomes an exceedingly important question 
how best to conserve the physical welfare of the pupils, 
to make the school work, though necessarily indirect, 
still potent. The best means of attaining this end will 
be discussed in some detail after a preliminary con- 
sideration of the psychology of conduct. 

The Psychology of Conduct. — It is often said, and the 
statement meets with universal educational approval, 
that the end or aim of instruction is ethical. That 
knowledge is best which makes for socially efficient 
action. The apparent inconsistency of knowing the 
right and still doing the wrong is a problem which 
has exercised the thought of philosophers and psychol- 
ogists in all ages. Socrates, it will be remembered, 
identified knowledge and virtue. To his mind, the 
wise men could willfully do no wrong. Evil conduct 
was perforce the result of ignorance, a failure to ap- 
preciate and give sufficient weight to those conse- 
quences which were ever discernible to the eye of 
wisdom. Human experience, however, has scarcely 
been able to verify this high ethical ideal. It is a 
fact of common observation that we may often clearly 
see the right and yet choose the wrong. 



PHYSIOLOGY 265 

The development of action is the outgrowth of both 
nature and nurture. Every individual comes into the 
world with a fund of ready-made motor reactions. 
Some of these appear even before birth, others shortly 
after, and some, e. g., those of adolescence, are de- 
ferred until comparatively late in life. These instincts 
are biologically explainable on the basis of general 
and special heredity. The Italian or Chinese has not 
only the racial traits of his people but also evidences 
the peculiarities of his immediate ancestry. Out of 
this mass of instinctive reactions to his material and 
spiritual environment there gradually develops, largely 
through the influence of pleasure and pain, his own 
personality. The pleasurable consequences of success 
by degrees transform the aimless movements of the 
infant into the purposeful actions of the child. The 
force of imitation and the approval and disapproval 
of parents, nurses, etc., are important factors in this 
development. By the time the child is of school age, 
numerous instinctive reactions have been largely 
eliminated and many necessary habits formed. As 
the mind matures, thoughtful deliberation tends to 
supplant instinctive reaction, though the force of early 
training and association remains quite potent. 

Every idea which occupies the mind has a motor 
aspect. This is evident to even casual observation, 
and it has also been made the subject of much psycho- 
logical experimentation. In a set of experiments 
made by the author on his four year old daughter, 
ninety-two per cent of a large number of definitions 
secured were of an entirelv motor character. The 



266 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

piano — an automatic player — was a thing "what you 
play with your feet;" a window was "what you look 
out of," etc. Not only does the mention of the ob- 
ject suggest a corresponding motor idea, but it fre- 
quently gives rise to the act itself. Several familiar 
household games are based upon this psychological 
fact. The more intense the idea, and the richer its 
mental organization, the greater the likelihood of the 
resultant act. Focalization of attention is thus seen 
to be a most important factor in the formation of new 
habits, or in the breaking of old ones. More impor- 
tant than such focalization, however, is the thorough- 
going organization of ideas into apperceptive systems. 
The Herbartians have w T orked out this aspect of voli- 
tion most completely. A well organized mind will 
naturally mean a consistent character. Strength for 
action is secured through the mutual reinforcement 
of the various ideal elements. When there is com- 
bined with such mental organization proper ethical 
ideas we have not only a consistent character but a 
moral character as well. Pleasure is not viewed as a 
distinct constituent of mind, but merely as the emo- 
tional phase of an idea train moving in a manner com- 
patible with the individual's ordinary processes of 
thought. Displeasure or aversion arises as the result 
of a checking or retardation of the wonted idea trains. 
In fact, it is this retardation. The state of desire is 
the corresponding feeling of arrest. The ability to re- 
move this arrest and permit the idea train to proceed 
constitutes the essence of will. Two boys, A and B, 
see a dog frantically endeavoring to remove a pack 



PHYSIOLOGY 267 

of exploding fire-crackers dangling on its tail. A 
laughs, enjoying the acceleration of his usual idea 
trains in which love of cruelty is a prominent feature. 
B is moved to compassion and is distressed. His idea 
trains, characterized by consideration for animal suf- 
fering, are arrested. This arrest transforms itself into 
the desire to relieve the poor animal. In the next 
paragraph we shall attempt to apply this discussion 
of the springs of conduct to the formation of habits 
conducive to health. 

Teaching Hygiene. — The foregoing sketch of the 
psychology of action will enable us to give an answer 
to the query concerning the value of a study of an- 
atomy and physiology in their relation to hygiene. It 
is sometimes urged that the present elementary course 
in these subjects is indefensible. If the aim is health- 
ful living, why not teach just hygiene directly ? The 
school is not supposed to train its pupils to become 
physicians. Such an argument seems plausible to the 
layman and even to the average medical practitioner. 
The educator is, of course, willing to admit that many 
useful practices must be taught simply as hygiene. 
The emergency treatment of burns, disinfection of 
wounds, bandaging of cuts, etc., are a few illustrations. 
In general, the school should give instruction in proper 
procedure in emergencies to be employed in the in- 
terim before medical treatment can be secured. 

The everyday processes of life, however, demand a 
different educational preparation. Emergencies are 
the exception, not the rule. Habits of eating, and 
drinking, care of the teeth and eyes, cleanliness, ex- 



268 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

ercise, pure air, sufficient sleep, etc., are needed every 
minute of the ordinary uneventful life. To secure a 
proper attitude toward these processes there is needed 
a rich mental soil of apperception, in which anatom- 
ical and physiological details form the rational basis 
for action. To lead the child to deduce hygienic rules 
for himself should be the aim of a good teacher. Thus 
deduced, these rules will be more likely to influence 
conduct. The self-active cooperation of the pupil 
makes for the most permanent form of mental organi- 
zation. This psychological fact has been alluded to in 
several parts of this book, but its splendid application 
here justifies its repetition. A teacher, for example, 
has a class of pupils who give every evidence of ab- 
sence of tooth brushes in the hygienic equipment of 
their homes. Simply to tell them that they should 
brush their teeth is so much waste of time and breath. 
To add some reason, such as that neglect of teeth will 
lead to decay and finally impair digestion, consti- 
tutes considerably better teaching, but even this can- 
not be relied on to initiate effective habits. The exhi- 
bition of a large model of a decayed tooth would add 
an objective and an emotionally impressive element. 
Better than any of these methods, though probably 
including the latter, would be to follow up the explana- 
tion of the process of digestion by a detailed presenta- 
tion of the structure and function of the teeth. Here 
is where detail is psychologically important. The 
structure of enamel, dentine, and nerve pulp should 
be impressively shown either by means of large models 
or clear pictures. An entire lesson could profitably 



PHYSIOLOGY 269 

be spent in the elucidation of these anatomical de- 
tails. It should be followed by an interesting presen- 
tation, also objective, of the process of decay and its 
causes. A particularly full treatment is justified here 
on account of the relation of the topic to cleanliness in 
general. After the class has secured a general idea 
of the digestive process, followed by anatomical study 
of tooth structure and the laws of decay, there should 
follow a real Socratic lesson in hygiene. The pupils 
are now in a position to deduce for themselves the 
necessity for and the method of care of the teeth. 
Their knowledge of the interesting structure of enamel 
combined with the understanding of its protective 
function will readily enable them to see the need of 
frequent removal of all putrefactive substances. They 
can easily reason out the most essential times for such 
removal, viz., immediately after eating, and can be 
led to deduce the proper manner of cleansing. A large 
model of a tooth brush, with an explanation of the 
nature and arrangement of its bristles, would form 
an impressive objective presentation. The desir- 
ability of brushing the teeth in a direction away from 
the gums could be developed from the class by proper 
questioning. The self-active processes are peculiarly 
important here as in every subject where action as 
well as knowledge is desired. Similarly the class 
could determine the proper nature and use of a tooth- 
pick. Probably all that would have to be simply told 
them would be the kind of tooth-paste or powder best 
adapted for cleansing. They must also be led to see 
that the importance of mastication for good digestion 



270 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

and health demands that they do all they can to con- 
serve their teeth. Even with the best human care, 
disease of the teeth may occur. The need of regular 
visits to a tooth specialist — a dentist — should be im- 
pressed. His knowledge and apparatus enable him 
to detect the beginnings of tooth trouble, and save us 
much misery and distress. The plan outlined above 
for the teaching of tooth hygiene may seem long and 
complicated. It is nevertheless an effective procedure, 
and the importance of the subject amply justifies the 
length of time demanded. 

Similar apperceptive organization is needed for the 
proper teaching of many other rules of everyday hy- 
giene. Perhaps more anatomical and physiological 
knowledge is required than the average teacher pos- 
sesses. She will, however, scarcely teach hygiene ef- 
fectively unless she secures this knowledge. The mul- 
tiplication of associations in this kind of mental organi- 
zation means not only a better retention of the knowl- 
edge, but renders the pupil's environment a series 
of constant reminders or suggestions of necessary 
health processes. He is enabled to appreciate the 
reasons for hygienic practices and, more than this, the 
reasons are so thoroughly interwoven with his whole 
mental life that they can reasonably be expected to in- 
fluence his conduct. If this desirable result is 
thwarted by the long neglect of his home surround- 
ings, it may at least become effective when, as a parent, 
he sees the necessity of giving his own children the 
hygienic training which was denied him. The teacher 
combating- the influences of home training must often 



PHYSIOLOGY 271 

escape absolute despair by the thought that her teach- 
ing may bear fruit at least in the next generation. 

To the objection that there is too much anatomical 
detail required in the elementary course, we can an- 
swer yes and no. A rational course in physiology 
should demand even more detail where it can be made 
an effective means for mental organization as a basis 
for healthful living. Where no such end is discern- 
ible, detail can be justified only by its conventional 
or theoretic value. Such details should be carefully 
restricted. We may instance as a few of the results 
which we might reasonably expect from a rational 
course in physiology: assuming proper positions of 
reader and book especially when using artificial light, 
the avoidance of reading in moving vehicles, the 
(negative) care of the ear, 1 conscientious ventilation 
of sleeping apartments, the group of healthful habits 
springing directly from a knowledge of the rela- 
tion of blood supply to exercise, digestion, and 
mental exertion, cleanliness — particularly in regard 
to the prevention of the spread of disease, proper 
attention to the elimination of w r aste, especially the 
importance of regular bowel movements, appre- 
ciation of the need of sufficient sleep, a knowl- 
edge of food values and methods of food prepa- 
ration. 

i There is probably no better way of securing respect for this 
important organ than by giving a complete description of its 
delicate anatomy. It is not intended that all or any of this 
anatomical knowledge should be demanded from the pupil. Its 
value lies rather in its function as a mental cement, and as 
conducive to a proper hygienic attitude. 



272 INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES 

Sex Hygiene. — I have purposely left the delicate and 
difficult subject of sex hygiene for separate considera- 
tion. Although many regard the home as the natural 
place for instruction and guidance in this subject 
its conspicuous neglect there has tended to force it 
into the school. Modern conditions have made this 
topic one of even greater importance than it was some 
centuries ago. Civilization has so prolonged the 
period of sociological infancy that fifteen years or 
more frequently intervenes between physiological and 
sociological marriageability. This is a peculiarly dan- 
gerous period as the passions are then strongest and 
reason and volition are insufficiently developed to vie 
against them. From about the seventh school year on 
through the high school the physical and moral care 
of adolescence assumes tremendous importance. 

In general, the elementary school must fortify the 
child against his lower self by a wholesome atmos- 
phere, by aiding in the development of the mental 
fiber resulting from contact with good literature, and 
by the rigorous avoidance of the lewd and suggestive. 
Many are of the opinion that, from the time of ado- 
lescence, boys should be taught by men and girls by 
women. It is, however, questionable whether their ar- 
guments are sufficient to outweigh the many ad- 
vantages of co-education. The school should endeavor 
to supply a wholesome outlet for the energy of the 
pupils. Encouragement should be given to all forms 
of out-door recreation, such as athletics, for both boys 
and girls. Supervised play and carefully organized 
social work are forms of extra-scholastic activity 



PHYSIOLOGY 273 

which should be provided for by public spirited Boards 
of Education. In sexual morality, it is particularly 
true that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of 
cure. 

It is probably unwise for the elementary class- 
teacher to attempt any direct teaching along the lines 
of sex hygiene. It is a growing opinion among close 
students of the problem that all such instruction 
should be strictly private or individual. The medical 
inspector, nurse, and teacher must form a vigilant 
trio. Moreover, in this work, the school should reach 
out to influence the home. Parents' meetings in which 
the importance of the subject is frankly and impres- 
sively discussed may be productive of considerable 
good. Throughout all such work there should be at- 
tempted the destruction of the absolutely untenable 
double standard of sex morality. Impurity must be 
regarded as a sin not only for women but also for 
men. 



THE END 



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274 



Teachers Books Psychology, Pedagogy 

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276 



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